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gave battle to the Tartars, but was defeated with vast slaughter, his capital laid in ashes, and above 100,000 of his subjects massacred. Nothing could withstand the prodigious numbers of this new enemy, and the fury with which they fought. On the frontiers of Hungary they fixed their head-quarters; and spread their devastations on every side with a celerity and success that threatened the destruction of every neighbouring kingdom.

In this dreadful situation was Poland when Boleslaus V., surnamed the Chaste, was raised to the sovereignty. He was opposed by his uncle Conrade the brother of Lechus, who was provoked at becoming the subject of his own nephew. Having assembled a powerful army, Conrade gained possession of Cracow; assumed the title of duke of Poland; and might possibly have kept possession of the throne, had not his avarice and pride equally offended the nobility and peasants, who unanimously invited Boleslaus from Hungary, to come and head the insurrection which now took place. On his arrival he was joyfully received into the capital; but Conrade headed a powerful party; and on this occasion the knights of the Teutonic order were first by him called into Poland. Conrade, however, was defeated in two pitched battles, and forced to live in a private situation; though he never ceased to harass his nephew. Of the reign of Boleslaus we have little account, except that he made a vow of perpetual continency, and imposed the same on his wife; that he founded near forty monasteries; and died after a long reign in 1279; having adopted Lechus duke of Cujavia, and procured a confirmation of his choice by the people. The reign of Lechus III. was one continued scene of foreign and domestic trouble. On his accession he was attacked by the united forces of Russia and Lithuania, assisted by the Tartars; whom, however, he defeated in a pitched battle, and obliged to quit the kingdom; but civil dissensions took place soon after, and increased to such a degree that Lechus was obliged to fly to Hungary. The inhabitants of Cracow alone remained firm in their duty; and they were at last relieved by Lechus at the head of an Hungarian army, who defeated the rebels, and restored to his kingdom a legitimate government. He had scarcely reascended the throne when the united forces of the Russians, Tartars, and Lithuanians, made a second irruption into Poland, and desolated the country. Their forces were rendered more terrible by their having along with them a vast number of large dogs trained to war. Lechus, however, with an army much inferior, obtained a complete victory. Soon after this he died, with the reputation of a warlike and wise, but unfortunate prince.

A civil war once more ensued; and' the affairs of the state continued in a declining condition, till 1296, when Premislaus, then duke, resumed the title of king. In 1305 Uladislaus Locticus, who had seized the throne in 1300, and afterwards been driven out, was again restored. The first transaction of his reign was a war with the Teutonic knights, who had usurped the greater part of Pomerania. They had been settled in the ter

ritory of Culm by Conrade duke of Mazovia; but soon extended their dominion over the neighbouring provinces, and, having obtained possession of Dantzic, massacred a number of Pomeranian gentlemen in cold blood. The knights were ordered by the pope to renounce their conquests; bit they set at nought his thunders. The king first marched against the marquis of Brandenburgh, because he had pretended to sell the right of those countries to the Teutonic knights. Uladislaus next laid waste the territory of Culm; and, though opposed by the forces of the marquis, the knights, and the duke of Mazovia, obtained the victory in two decisive battles. Had he improved these advantages he might easily have exterminated the whole order, but he concluded a treaty under the mediation of the kings of Hungary and Bohemia. In a few months he was convinced of the perfidy of the knights; for they not only refused to evacuate Pomerania as had been stipulated, but endeavoured to extend their usurpations. Uladislaus, enraged at this, took the field a third time, and gave them battle with such success that 4000 knights were left dead on the spot, and 30,000 auxiliaries killed or taken prisoners. After this he spent the remainder of his life in tranquillity.

He was succeeded by his son Casimir III., surnamed the Great, who subdued the province of Russia Nigra in a single campaign. Next he turned his arms against Mazovia; over-ran the duchy, and annexed it as a province to the Polish crown; after which he applied himself to domestic affairs. The only vice with which he is charged is incontinency; but even this the clergy declared to be a venial sin, amply compensated by his other virtues. Casimir was succeeded by his nephew Lewis king of Hungary; who, perceiving a coldness in the Poles towards him, left Poland soon after his coronation, committing the government to the hands of his mother Elizabeth. Poland at this time, however, was too much distracted to be governed by a woman. The country was over-run with robbers, who committed the most horrid disorders; it was likewise invaded by the Lithuanians; the whole province of Russia Nigra revolted; and the kingdom was filled universally with dissension. The Poles could not bear to see their towns filled with Hungarian garrisons; and sent a message to the king, reproaching him with his neglect of them. On this Lewis raised a numerous army to subdue their spirit. His first operations were directed against the Russians; whom he reduced to subjection. Then he turned his arms against the Lithuanians, and, driving them out of the kingdom, re-established tranquillity. On his death Hedwiga, daughter of Casimir, was proclaimed queen; she married Jagello, great duke of Lithuania, who was now converted to Christianity, and baptised by the name of Uladislaus. In consequence the duchy of Lithuania, as well as the vast provinces of Samogitia and Russia Nigra, became annexed to the crown of Poland. This excited the jealousy of the Teutonic knights, who were sensible that Uladislaus would now undertake the reduction of Pomerania. On a sudden, therefore, two armies marched towards the fron

tiers of the duchy, which they penetrated, laying waste the country. As soon as he heard of these ravages, Uladislaus raised an army, the command of which he committed to his brother Skirgello, who defeated the knights, and obliged them to abandon their conquests. In the mean time Uladislaus marched into the Higher Poland, which was under many petty tyrants; the palatine of Posnia in particular had distinguished himself by his rebellious practices; but he was completely defeated by Uladislaus, and the whole country reduced to obedience.

Having secured the tranquillity of Poland, Uladislaus visited Lithuania, with a great number of the clergy, to convert his pagan subjects. This he effected, but left the care of the duchy to his brother Skirgello, a man of a cruel, haughty disposition, associating with him his cousin Vitowda, a prince of a very contrary character. The barbarity of Skirgello soon obliged this prince to take refuge among the Teutonic knights, whom he at length joined in invading the country. As soon, however, as an opportunity offered, he came to an accommodation with the king, who bestowed on him the entire government. He endeavoured to repair the calamities which the late wars had occasioned; but his impetuous valor prompted him at last to engage in a war with Tamerlane the Great, and he encountered an army of 400,000 Tartars under Ediga, Tamerlane's lieutenant, with only a tenth part of their number. The battle continued for a whole day; but at last Vitowda, being surrounded by the enemy, broke his way through with prodigious slaughter, and came off without a defeat. During the absence of Vitowda, the Teutonic knights had penetrated into Lithuania; on his return he attacked and defeated them, making an irruption into Livonia. This was succeeded by a long series of wars between Poland and Prussia, in which Uladislaus himself took the field. He penetrated into Prussia, took several towns, and was advancing to Marienburg, when he was met by the Prussian knights, who determined to hazard a battle. When the engagement began the Poles were deserted by their auxiliaries, but the courage and conduct of the king so animated them, that, after a desperate battle, they obtained a complete victory; near 40,000 of the enemy being killed in the field, and 30,000 taken prisoners. Uladislaus concluded a peace upon easier terms than his adversaries had any reason to expect. But some infraction of the treaty soon occasioned a renewal of hostilities, and Uladislaus would now hearken to no terms; until the enemy, driven to desperation, determined on burying themselves in the ruins of their capital. The siege was accordingly commenced, and both sides behaved with great vigor; but at last, through the good conduct and valor of the grand master Plawen, the Polish monarch was obliged to grant them an advantageous peace. Uladislaus V. died in 1435, and was succeeded by his son Uladislaus VI., then only nine years of age.

He had scarcely ascended the throne when the kingdom was invaded by the Tartars, who defeated Buccarius the Polish general; and, committing every where dreadful ravages, returned to their own country loaded with booty. A few

years after the nation was involved in a war with Amurath II., emperor of the Turks. But, before the young king could take the field, a strong body of auxiliaries was despatched under the celebrated John Hunniades, vaivode of Transylvania, to oppose the Turks, and defeated Amurath with the loss of 30,000 men; after which Hunniades retook all the places which had been conquered by Amurath. A treaty was concluded, by which the Turks promised to relinquish their designs upon Hungary, to acknowledge the king's right to that crown, and to give up all their conquests in Rascia and Servia. This treaty was sealed by mutual oaths; but Uladislaus broke it at the persuasion of the pope's legate; who insisted that now was the time for humbling the power of the infidels. The consequence of this perfidy was, that Uladislaus was entirely defeated and killed at Varna, and the greatest part of his army cut in pieces.

Uladislaus VI. was succeeded by Casimir IV., in whose reign the Teutonic knights were subdued, and obliged to yield up the territories of Culm, Michelaw, and Pomerania, with the towns of Elbing, Marienburg, Talkmith, Schut, and Christburg. On the other hand, the king restored to them all his other conquests in Prussia, granted a seat in the Polish senate to the grand-master, and endowed him with other privileges, on condition that, six months after his accession, he should do homage for Prussia, and take an oath of fidelity to the king and republic. The diet did not think proper to renew the war against the Turks, but took under their protection the hospodar of Moldavia; as thinking that this province would make a convenient barrier to the Polish dominions. About this time also, the crown of Bohemia becoming vacant, the people wished to be governed by a prince of Poland; upon which the barons elected Uladislaus, eldest son of Casimir, in opposition to the intrigues of the king of Hungary. Not satisfied with this, Uladislaus took advantage of the dissensions in Hungary, to unite that crown to his own; and this he also effected. So many foreign expeditions, however, exhausted the treasury; the gentry were greatly diminished by a number of bloody engagements; agriculture was neglected, and the country almost depopulated. Before a proper remedy could be applied for these evils Casimir died, in 1492, more admired than beloved or regretted. It is related by the historians that in his reign the deputies of the provinces first appeared at the diet, and assumed to themselves the legislative power; all laws before this time having been framed by the king in conjunction with the senate. Before Casimir's time, also, the Latin language was understood only by the clergy of Poland.

During the succeeding reigns of John, Albert, and Alexander, the Polish affairs fell into decline, the kingdom being harassed by continual wars with the Turks and Tartars. However, they were retrieved by Sigismund I., who ascended the throne in 1507. This monarch, having reformed some abuses, next set about rendering the kingdom as formidable as it had formerly been. He first quelled a rebellion which broke out at Lithuania; after which he

drove the Walachians and Moldavians out of Russia Nigra, and defeated the Russians with the loss of 30,000 men. The Russian general, and several noblemen of the first distinction, were taken prisoners. After this the king turned his arms against the Teutonic knights, who had elected the marquis of Brandenburgh their grandmaster. He took several important places in Brandenburgh; but, as he was pursuing his conquests, the marquis was reinforced by 14,000 Germans, under the duke of Schonenburg, who laid siege to Dantzic. They were obliged, however, to relinquish their enterprise; and, in their retreat, were attacked and cut to pieces by a strong detachment of Polish cavalry. Soon after this the marquis submitted to the conqueror. Sigismund granted him half the province of Prussia as a secular duke, dependent on the crown of Poland. The power of Sigismund now excited the jealousy of Austria; and the vaivode of Walachia, with 50,000 men, made an irruption into Pokatior, but was defeated by count Taro at the head of only 6000. The count, having then augmented his army with a strong body of Lithuanians, attacked the Muscovites and Tartars (also excited by the emperor against Poland), pursued them into Russia, reduced several towns, and at last laid siege to the fortress of Straradub; by which means the regent and nobility were obliged to surrender at discretion: Taro carried off upwards of 60,000 prisoners, with an immense booty. In the reign of Sigismund the kingdom of Poland appears to have been at its highest pitch of glory. This monarch possessed the republic of Poland, the great duchies of Lithuania, Smolensko, and Saveria, besides considerable territories beyond the Euxine and Baltic; while his nephew Louis governed Bohemia, Hungary, and Silesia. But this glory received a sudden check in 1548 by the defeat and death of Lewis, who perished in a battle with Solyman, emperor of the Turks. The daughter of this prince married Ferdinand of Austria; whereby Hungary, Bohemia, and Silesia, became inseparably connected with the hereditary dominions of the Austrian family. Sigismund died a few months after, aged eightyfour, leaving behind him the character of the completest general, and the ablest politician, of the north; he was also, personally, a very strong

man.

Sigismund Augustus, who succeeded his father Sigismund I., proved also a great and fortunate prince. He applied himself to the reforming of abuses, enriching the treasury, and redeeming the crown lands. Out of the revenue, thus recovered, he obtained a formidable standing army, without laying any additional tax upon his subjects. The province of Livonia was then divided between the Teutonic knights and the archbishop of Riga; when the Russians, under pretence of assisting the former, seized great part of the dominions of the latter. The archbishop had recourse to Sigismund; who, after fruitless efforts to accommodate matters, marched to the frontiers of Livonia with an army of 100,000

men

The knights, now deserting their late allies, put themselves under the protection of the king of Poland: but the czar, John Basilides, did

not lose his courage; he even refused any answer to the proposals of peace made by Sigismund, and invaded Poland with his whole army. Sigismund revenged himself by invading Russia; until these mutual desolations and ravages at last made both parties desirous of peace, and a truce for three years was agreed on; during which the king of Poland died, and with him ceased the house of Jagellon, which had governed Poland nearly 200 years.

A vast number of intrigues were now set on foot at the courts of Vienna, France, Saxony, Sweden, and Brandenburgh, to establish a prince on the throne, the diet consulting only their own interest, and being ready to sell themselves to the best bidder. The Protestants having by this time obtained a considerable footing in the kingdom, religious disputes were also intermingled with political. One good effect, however, flowed from this; a law was passed that no difference in religious opinions should disqualify any Pole from holding public offices; and that the future kings should swear to cultivate the internal tranquillity of the realm. While each of the candidates was attempting to support his own interest, John Crososki, a Polish gentleman of great merit, but diminutive stature, had just returned from France. He owed many obligations to the duke of Anjou; whom he represented in such favorable terms, that the Poles decided on making him king, and Charles IX. promoted the scheme. Accordingly it was stipulated that he should marry the princess Anne, sister to the late momarch; and, every thing being settled, the young king quitted France, attended by a splendid retinue, and was received and crowned with great solemnity at Cracow. Scarcely was he seated on the throne, however, when by the death of Charles IX. he became heir to the crown of France: on his setting out for that country, the Poles were much exasperated against his whole nation, so that all the French in Cracow would have been massacred if the magistrates had not furnished them with guards. Henry endeavoured to apologise for his behaviour; but nothing could satisfy the Poles; who, on the 15th July 1575, solemnly divested him of the regal dignity, and declared the throne vacant. Commotions and factions were now again the order of the day. One principal part at last proposed Maximilian emperor of Germany; another was for electing the princess Anne, and marrying her to Stephen Batori prince of Transylvania. The latter prevailed, through the courage of one gentleman, who, in imitation of the Roman tribunes, stood up in full senate and opposed the proclamation of Maximilian as illegal. Both parties wrote to the princes whose cause they had espoused, intreating them to come and take possession of the throne. Batori proved the more alert; for, while Maximilian was disputing about certain conditions which the Poles stipulated, the former entered Poland, married the princess, and was crowned on the 1st of May, 1576.

Dantzic, however, adhered to the interest of Maximilian even after he was dead, and had the presumption to demand from the king an oath acknowledging their independence. Batori re

ner.

ferred them to the senate, admonishing the citizens to avoid all occasions of a civil war. But his remonstrances were vain; and the Dantzickers were deaf to his proposals, until he declared them rebels, and sent against them a body of troops, who defeated them with the loss of 8000 men killed, and many prisoners. In the mean time the czar of Muscovy laid siege to Revel; but, failing, ravaged Livonia in a dreadful manThis did not hinder Stephen from laying siege to Dantzie in person, with the utmost vigor. Collen, the Dantzic general, made many sallies, in several of which he defeated the Poles: but, happening at last to be killed, the citizens were obliged to surrender at discretion. The terms which the king demanded were, that they should ask his pardon, dismiss their troops, and rebuild the monastery of Olivia, which they had destroyed; while he, on the other hand, confirmed all their privileges, and granted them full liberty of adhering to the confession of Augsburg. The king could now direct his whole strength against the czar, who had made himself master of several important places in Livonia, and whose whole course was marked by unparalleled outrages. Such was the horror inspired by his perfidy and cruelty that the inhabitants of Wender chose rather to bury themselves in the ruins of their town, than to submit. In 1578 a body of forces was despatched into the province, the towns of Wender and Dunnenburg were surprised, and an army sent by the czar to the former was defeated. Livonia was also invaded by the Swedes, who professed to be enemies to both parties, and were scarcely inferior in cruelty to the Russians.

Stephen having made great preparations, and called to his assistance Christopher prince of Transylvania, took the field in person against the Muscovites, and laid siege to Polocz. The Russians no sooner heard of his approach than, to strike terror into the enemy, they put all the citizens to death. When Stephen came near the town, the river was dyed with blood, and a vast number of human bodies fastened to planks, and terribly mangled, were floating down the stream. Finding that cannon made little impression upon the walls, the irritated Poles rushed to the assault with burning torches, and reduced the fortifications to ashes. After the reduction of Polocz, Batori continued the war with great success. Two detachments of his army penetrated the enemy's country by different roads, wasting all before them to the gates of Smolensko, and returned with the spoils of 2000 villages. The czar at length was obliged to sue for peace; which he obtained on condition of relinquishing Livonia, after having thrown away the lives of more than 400,000 of his subjects in attempting to conquer it. Stephen, thus freed from a most destructive and cruel war, applied himself to the internal government of Poland. He made the Polish cavalry formidable to the Turks and neighbouring nations; and founded the military establishment, which the Poles named quartienne; because a fourth part of the revenue was employed in supporting it. Batori sent a body of cavalry towards the frontiers of Tartary, to check the incursions of those barbarians; by

which means the Ukraine, a vast tract of desert country, was filled with flourishing towns and villages, and became a strong barrier against the Turks, Tartars, and Russians. His last memorable action was attaching the Cossacks to Poland. He presented them with the city of Techtemeravia, on the Boristhenes, which they formed into a magazine, and made the residence of their chieftains; gave them officers of all degrees, established discipline among them, altered their arms, and formed them into a regular militia, which performed eminent services to the state. All kinds of manufactures then known in Poland were likewise established among the Cossacks. While Batori was thus laudably employed, the Swedes broke the convention into which they had entered with Poland, and were on the point of getting possession of Riga. To this, indeed, Batori himself had contributed by attempting to impose the Romish religion upon the inhabitants of that city which was on the point of admitting a Swedish garrison. Upon this treason he resolved to take exemplary vengeance, but before he could execute it he died, in 1586, in the tenth year of his reign, aged fifty-four.

Four different candidates now appeared for the crown, viz., the princes Ernest and Maximilian of the house of Austria; Sigismund prince of Sweden, and Theodore czar of Muscovy. Each of these had a separate party; but Sigismund and Maximilian were so near a par that in 1587 both were elected. The consequence was a civil war; in which Maximilian was defeated and taken prisoner: and thus Sigismund III., De Vasa, became master of the throne. He waged a successful war with the Tartars, was otherwise prosperous, and succeeded to the crown of Sweden; but he found it impossible to retain both kingdoms, and he was formally deposed from the Swedish throne. In 1610 he conquered Russia, and placed his son on the throne; but the Polish conquests of that country were always precarious. Accordingly the young prince was soon after deposed; and the Russians began to make encroachments on Poland itself. A very unfortunate war also took place with Sweden, now governed by the great Gustavus Adolphus; the particulars of which will be found related under SWEDEN. At last Sigismund, worn out with cares and misfortunes, died in 1629.

After Sigismund's death the affairs of Poland seemed to revive under Uladislaus VII.; he obliged the Russians to sue for peace, and Sweden to restore some of her conquests: but, having attempted to abridge the liberty of the Cossacks, they revolted. The war was not terminated in the lifetime of Uladislaus, who died in 1648. His brother and successor, John Casimir, concluded a peace with these dangerous enemies: but ere this was effected the Russians took the opportunity of invading and pillaging Lithuania. În a little time after the whole kingdom was subdued by Charles X. of Sweden. Happily for Poland, however, a rupture took place between the courts of Sweden and Copenhagen; by which means the Poles were enabled to drive out the Swedes in 1657. The king resigned the crown in 1668. For two years after Poland was one scene of

confusion; but on the 17th of September, 1670, Michael Coribut Wiesnowiski, collaterally descended from the house of Jagello, but in a very mean situation, was chosen king. His reign continued but for three years; during which John Sobieski, a native Polish general, gave the Turks a dreadful overthrow. Of 300,000 only 15,000 escaped, the rest being all either killed or taken however, the Polish soldiers, being bound by the laws of their country only to stay a certain time in the field, refused to pursue this signal victory. Wiesnowiski died before the news of this transaction reached Cracow; and after his death a new scene of confusion ensued, till at last, in 1674, Sobieski was elected king.

John Sobieski, by his valor and good conduct, retrieved the affairs of Poland, and entirely checked the progress of the Turks. These barbarians were every where defeated (see TURKEY), but, notwithstanding his great qualities, Poland was now so thoroughly pervaded by the spirit of anarchy, that the latter part of his reign was involved in perplexity and cabal. Sobieski died in 1696; and with him fell the independence of his country. Most violent contests took place about the succession; the recital of which would far exceed our limits. At last Frederick Augustus I., of Saxony, prevailed; but yet, as some of the most essential ceremonies were wanting in his coronation, because the primate, who was in an opposite interest, would not perform them, he found it extremely difficult to reduce his subjects to obedience. To add to his misfortunes, having engaged in a league with Denmark and Russia against Sweden, he was attacked with great fury by Charles XII. Though Augustus had not been betrayed, as indeed he almost always was, he was by no means a match for the ferocious Swede. The particulars of this war, however, which ended in the conquest of Poland, as they make great part of the exploits of that northern hero, more properly fall under SWEDEN. Here we need only observe that Augustus was reduced to the humiliating necessity of renouncing the crown of Poland on oath, and of congratulating his rival Stanislaus Leczinski upon his accession to the throne, 12th of September 1733: but, when the power of Charles was broken by his defeat at Pultowa, the fortunes of Augustus revived; Stanislaus was driven out; and the former, being absolved from his oath by the pope, resumed the throne of Poland.

Surrounded by great and ambitious powers, the Polish nation now sunk under the weight of their rapacity. On the 5th of October, 1763, died Frederick II. elector of Saxony, and king of Poland. He was succeeded by count Poniatowski, a Polish grandee, who was proclaimed, September 7th, 1764, by the name of Stanislaus Augustus, and crowned on the 25th of November, the same year. During the interregnum, between the death of Augustus II. and the election of Stanislaus, a decree had been made by the diet, with regard to the Dissidents or Dissenters from the popish religion. By this decree they were prohibited from the free exercise of their religion, and totally excluded from all posts and places of authority. On this several of the European powers interposed, but the decree was confirmed

by the coronation diet held after the king's election. In October 1766 the declarations from the above courts were presented to Stanislaus Augustus, at an ordinary diet, requesting the reestablishment of the dissidents in their civil and religious rights. But the Popish party insisted on a confirmation of the decrees made against them. At last, after violent disputes, the business was referred to the bishops and senators. About this time the court of Petersburg, which had previously sent a small body of Russian troops to within two miles of Warsaw, added to them a force of 15,000. The Dissidents, being thus assured of the protection of foreign powers, entered, on the 20th of March 1767, into two confederacies, at Thorn and Sluck; one signed by those of Great and Little Poland, the other by those of Lithuania. The cities of Thorn, Elbing, and Dantzic, acceded to the confederacy of Thorn, April 10th, and the duke and nobles of Courland to that of Sluck, May 15th. The empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, continued to issue forth new declarations in favor of the dissidents, and the Russian troops of Poland were soon augmented to 30,000 men. Other confederacies were also formed in different parts. All of them published manifestoes, in which they advised the inhabitants to treat the Russians as their defenders. The Catholics were equally active. The pope also sent exhortations to the king, great chancellor, and nobility, &c. On the 26th of September, 1767, the confederacy of dissidents and that of the malcontents were united in prince Radzivil's palace. A few days after the Russian troops in the capital were reinforced. On the 5th of October an extroardinary diet was held, but the affairs of the dissidents met with so much opposition that it was adjourned to the 12th. Next day, the 13th, the bishops of Cracow and Kiow, the palatine of Cracow, and the Staroste of Dolmski, were carried off by a Russian detachment. The crime alleged against them, in a declaration published by the prince, was, that They had been disrespectful to the empress of Russia, in attacking the purity of her intentions towards the republic, though she was resolved to continue her protection and assistance for preserving the liberties of Poland, and correcting all abuses,' &c.

The innovations above mentioned soon produced a civil war, which at last ended in the utter ruin of the kingdom. In the beginning of 1768 was formed the confederacy of Bar. The intention of it was to abolish, by force of arms, the constitutions in favor of the dissidents. Similar confederacies were quickly entered into throughout the kingdom: the clergy excited ail ranks of men to exert themselves in defence of their religion; and with such success that even the king's troops could not be trusted to act against them. Great cruelty was exercised against the dissidents where there were no Russian troops to protect them. Towards the end of October, 1769, prince Martin Lubomirski, one of the southern confederates, who had been driven out of Poland, and had taken shelter with some of his adherents among the mountains of Hungary, posted a manifesto on several of the churches of Cracow, in which he invited the nation to a

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