broken pipes and fresh clay. At first the fire is but gentle; by degrees it is increased to the proper temperature, and so continued for seven or eight hours, when it is damped and suffered to cool gradually the pipes, when cold, are taken out and ready for sale.

At one

Wooden pipes are trees bored with large iron augers of different sizes, beginning with the less and proceeding on to those that are larger; the first being pointed, the rest are formed like spoons, increasing in diameter from one to six or eight inches; they are fitted into the extremities of each other. If small, these pipes are frequently bored by mere manual labor, but where they are large, and made of hard wood, the use of horses or of the steam engine is required. On the large scale the following will serve as a description of their manufacture:-The piece of timber, or perhaps the tree itself, when a little shaped on the outside by the axe, intended to form a pipe, is placed on a frame and held down firmly upon it by means of iron chains and windlasses; it is at the same time wedged up to prevent its rolling sideways; if the piece is tolerably straight this will answer every purpose, otherwise it must be fixed firm by wedges, iron hooks, &c., similar to those used by sawyers, driven into the carriage at one end and into the tree at the other. The frame and tree being bound together run upon small wheels traversing two long beams, or, as they are usually called, ground-sills, placed on each side of a pit dug to receive the chips made by the borers. end they are connected by a cross beam bolted upon them: this supports the bearing for a shaft, the extremity of which beyond the bearing is perforated at the end of a square hole, to receive the end of the borer. The timber and carriage are made to advance towards the borer by means of ropes: one rope being made to wind up, while the other gives out and draws the carriage and piece of timber backwards and forwards according as the wheel is turned. The weight of the borer is supported by a wheel turning between uprights fixed on a block, the end of which rests upon the ground-sills. It is moved forwards by two iron bars pinned to the front cross-bar of the carriage. The distance between the wheel and the carriage may be varied, by altering the iron bar and pins so as to bring the wheel always as near as convenient to the end of the tree. The shaft, as we have already hinted, may be turned by any first mover, as wind, water, horses, or steam, as is most convenient, and a man or boy regulates the wheel. When the borer is put in motion, by turning the wheel, the workman draws the tree up to the borer that pierces it; when a few inches are bored he draws the tree back by reversing the motion of the wheel, in order that the borer may throw out its chips; he then returns the tree, and continues the process till the work is finished. The borer in this case, be its size what it will, is of the same shape as that of a common auger.

Some years ago Mr. Howel, of Oswestry, invented an engine for the purpose of boring or hollowing wooden water-pipes, by means of which the process is not only much more expeditrous, but causes a considerable saving of timber.

By this mode, instead of the common method of boring by augers, or instruments of any other description which perforate the wood by cutting out the inner part of the substance in chips or shavings, a hollow tube or cylinder, made of thin plates of iron or other metal, about one inch less in diameter than the hole to be bored, is to be made use of. To one end of this tube or cylinder is to be fixed a flanch or ring, of from onequarter of an inch to five eighths of an inch in breadth; and one part of the circumference of this flanch or ring is to be divided or separated, so that, if it be made of steel, an edge or cutter may be formed thereby; or, for the more convenient use of it, a cutter of steel or other metal may be screwed, or otherwise connected with the tube and the flanch or ring. The recommendation of this instrument is, that it will bore out a piece of wood capable of being converted into a pipe or pipes of smaller dimensions, with the aid of less power, at less expense, and with less waste of wood than by means of the boring instrument now in use.

By another invention, pipes have been made of separate pieces or staves, instead of boring the solid timber. In this case, the end of one piece of pipe is tapered off to fit into the next piece, and the different parts are connected by dovetailing, rabbeting, or by means of screws, or any other method of joining the surfaces. The outer and inner surfaces may be painted, varnished, or covered over with pitch, tar, or any kind of cement that can be made to adhere.

The method of making leaden pipes consists in casting the lead upon a smooth steel mandril, placed in a mould also of metal, to form the outside. These pieces are about eighteen inches. long. They are afterwards joined together by a process called lining. But a very great improvement has been recently made in the manufacture of leaden pipes, by drawing them in a manner similar to wire. The lead to form the pipe is cast upon a mandril of the diameter of the inside of the pipe, but of such a thickness as to equal the whole pipe in weight; it is then fastened upon one end of a cylindric steel mandril, and the lead is pulled through different sized holes till the pipe is of sufficient length and thickness. These pipes can be drawn to the length of eight or ten feet. The power required, however, is very great, which is one objection to the method. They are also liable to flaws; for, if the casting happen to be imperfect, the imperfection is much increased and extended by the process of drawing.

This manufacture has been much improved by passing the lead upon the mandril through grooved rollers of different sizes, following each other in succession. The power required is much less than that required for drawing; and the pipes are said to be superior in other respects. See PLUMBING.

Iron pipes are cast at the foundries of any dimensions; and, for durability and strength combined, are greatly superior to any other material: they may be procured in lengths of ten feet, and united by nuts and screws passed through flaunches, cast on the ends of them. Most of the water companies of the metropolis have, within

mese few years past, adopted cast-iron pipes for their mains; they are usually cast in lengths of ten feet, with an enlarged socket at one end of sufficient size to receive the end of the next pipe. As these joints cannot be driven close, to fit like wooden joints, they require some cement. To apply this, the joint is first caulked, by driving a small quantity of hemp down to the bottom of it with a blunt chisel, and then filling the remainder of the socket with iron cement, which is a composition of borings or turnings of cast-iron, mixed up with sulphur and sal ammoniac. This is moistened with water, and rammed into the cavity; the rapid oxidation of the iron borings unites them into one mass, and at the same time expands the bulk of the cement, so as to fill up all the space. Another method, much used for large pipes, is to have two ears projecting from each pipe at the joint, through which screw-bolts are passed, to draw them close. The joints are sometimes filled with lead run in whilst melted.

Of late years pipes made of pottery have also been brought much into use; and Bell, of Birmingham, obtained in 1808 his majesty's letters patent for the exclusive privilege of manufacturing the following kind :

It has been found,' says he, 'by long experience, that pumps or pipes for conducting water from water-works which have been made of wood, or iron, lead, or any other metallic substances, have been objected to; the nature of my improvement is, therefore, to remove the aforesaid objections, which I completely perform by making tubes of porcelain pottery, and various compositions which are vitrifiable, and not liable to corrosion or decay. These tubes are formed in such a way at the ends as to fit one within the other, which I connect or unite together by cement, so as to make them water or air tight. And by the addition of any number of these tubes, connected as aforesaid, I form one complete tube or pipe to any extent which may be required. I prefer the method of enclosing them in cast-iron pipes or cases, which are to be made in various ways and forms; which pipes or cases serve as defenders of these porcelain or pottery tubes, to prevent breaking or bursting. Cases or pipes may be made of wood, and various other substances, for enclosing these porcelain or pottery tubes or pipes; but, for the sake of compactness, strength, and durability, I recommend cast-iron cases, boxes, or pipes. There are compound metals which are less corrosive than the real metals as aforesaid, of which tubes may be made, and if enclosed in the manner before described would be useful in conducting water and various liquids, either hot or cold, for particular purposes; as also thin tubes, made of wood, which may be prepared for durability by boiling it, or burning or charring it, which has the effect of preventing its breeding or har-. bouring insects, &c.' Of these last, in addition to his porcelain or pottery tubes enclosed, he claims the invention.

The Manchester Water-Works Company employ stone pipes for the conveyance of their water, and the stone which they have found most suitable to their purpose comes from a quarry at

Fox-Hill, in the parish of Gorting-Power, Gloucestershire, which is very like the Portlandstone; but the latter is the more dense or specifically heavy, in the proportion of seventeen to sixteen; that is, the Fox-hill stone requires seventeen cubical feet to the ton, but sixteen feet only of the Portland-stone go to the ton. The following method is used in boring the stone for pipes :-the first mover is a steam-engine of a power adapted to the work, giving a rotatory motion to a shaft placed horizontally, and running from one end of the works to the other. The works are divided into compartments, each of which serves for the boring of four pipes at the same time; by means of what is known to mechanics by the name of the bevel-geer, motion is communicated from the main horizontal shaft to a vertical arbor, at the top of which is a wheel. The rotatory motion of this wheel, by means of a crank bar, gives a reciprocating motion to the larger wheel, and this latter motion is such as to give rather more than a complete rotation to each of four smaller wheels placed opposite; with respect to the larger wheel, the mutual connexion between them and it being by means of teeth or cogs. Thus the small wheels go through somewhat more than a complete rotation in one direction, and then rather more than a complete rotation in the opposite direction, and so on alternately. On the vertical shafts, beneath the smaller wheels, are placed iron tubes, which are suffered to act by their own weights upon the stones to be bored, and by means of their rotation to bore those stones by attrition. The stones are cut into lengths of six or eight feet, and bored into pipes of various diameters. When the pipes are of fourteen inches diameter the thickness of stone allowed is about five inches. The tubes by which the boring is effected are of course fourteen inches in diameter, and weigh about one hundred and a half. They are made of thin plate iron, except their circular rim or sole at the bottom, which is about half an inch thick. As the attrition wears away the stones on which the soles of the tubes rest, they sink lower and lower; a semi-fluid mixture of sand and water runs down from the small wheels at the top of the tubes, keeping the whole moist, and carrying off the particles of stone as it is bored.

Copper-pipes are made of copper plate turned up and soldered, and are much used in distillers' work, because they can be tinned withinside, and then communicate no taint: but they are too expensive for ordinary use.

PIPES OF AN ORGAN. See ORGAN.

PIPES, SEA, in zoology, are univalved shells, of an oblong figure, terminating in a point, sometimes a little bending, and sometimes straight. Sea ears, figures of which we have given along with sea-pipes, are also univalved flat shells, resembling in shape the ear of a man. In sea ears it is not uncommon to find smail pearls, the seeds of which are often found in the middle of their cavities, which are of the finest naker or mother-of-pearl color. There are ridges on both sides; those without form a kind of volute or spire, terminating in an eye. In these shells there is a row of round holes, six of which generally go quite through. There is a shell of

this kind, which is longer in proportion to its width, and much less common, for it is never found in our seas. There is another, very fine and thin, of a dirty gray color, neither nakered nor perforated as the others are; the inner rim is spiral, and at some distance from the outer. The sea pipes are distinguished from sea worms by having their pipes single; whereas the others form an assemblage of pipes joined together. The sea worms, from the number and junction of their parts, are multivalves. The shells of pipes called dentales and antales, are distinguished from each other only by their size, the antales being much the least. The sea-pencil, or watering spout, is the most remarkable shell of this tribe, and must be considered as having a specific character, either by its form, which is straight, or the singularity of its superior extremity, which is perforated like the spout of a watering pot. The shell, pierced with many holes, is found with its natural covering in our seas. It is finely nakered within, and in the middle of its hollow or cavity contains many small pearls.

PIPER (Francis Le), an eminent English painter, the son of a gentleman in Kent, descended from a Walloon family. His father gave him a liberal education, but his genius led him to painting, in which he had a peculiar talent; for he needed but to see a face once, and would paint as exact a likeness as if the person had sat often. He also painted landscapes well; but delighted in painting faces peculiarly striking or ugly. He likewise modelled figures in wax to the life. In his travels he was equally whimsical. He often set out on a tour through France, the Netherlands, Germany, and even Egypt, without taking leave of his friends, or warning them of his return. He died in Aldermanbury in 1740, in consequence of his surgeon pricking an artery when bleeding him.

PIPER, in ichthyology. See TRIGLA.

PIPER, in botany, pepper; a genus of the trygynia order, and diandria class of plants; natural order second, piperitæ. There are twenty species; the most remarkable are:-1. P.amalago, or black pepper, and the piper inequale, with some other species, are indigenous, and named joint wood, or peppery elders. The first bears a small spike, on which are attached a number of small seeds of the size of mustard. The whole plant has the exact taste of the East India black repper.

2. P. betelum, the betel, or betle, is a creeping and climbing plant like the ivy; and its leaves a good deal resemble those of the citron, though they are longer and narrower at the extremity. It grows in all parts of India, but thrives best in moist places. The natives cultivate it like the vine, placing props for it to climb upon; and it is a common practice to plant it against the tree which bears the areca nut. At all times of the day, and even in the night, the Indians chew the leaves of the betel, the bitterness of which is corrected by the areca that is wrapped up in them. There is constantly mixed with it the chinam, a kind of burnt lime made of shells. The rich frequently add perfumes, either to gratify their vanity, or their sen

suality; as it is a powerful incentive to love. Betel is taken after meals; it is chewed during a visit; it is offered when you meet, and when you separate; in short, nothing is to be done without betel. If it is prejudicial to the teeth, it assists and strengthens the stomach. At least, it is a general fashion that prevails throughout India.

3. P. inequale, the long pepper of Jamaica. The bush grows taller than the amalago. The leaves are broad, smooth, and shining. The fruit is similar to the long pepper of the shops but smaller. The common people in Jamaica season their messes with the black pepper. Το preserve both, the fruit may be slightly scalded when green, then dried, and wrapped in paper. 4. P. siriboa, with oval, heart-shaped, nerved leaves, and reflexed spikes. This is the plant which produces the pepper used in food. It is a shrub whose root is small, fibrous, and flexible; it rises into a stem, which requires a tree or a prop to support it. Its wood has the same sort of knots as the vine; and, when it is dry, it exactly resembles the vine branch. The leaves, which have a strong smell and a pungent taste, are of an oval shape; but they diminish towards the extremity, and terminate in a point. From the flower buds, which are white, and are sometimes placed in the middle and sometimes at the extremity of the branches, are produced small berries resembling those of the currant tree. Each of these contains between twenty and thirty corns of pepper; they are commonly gathered in October, and exposed to the sun seven or eight days. The fruit, which was green at first and afterwards red, when stripped of its covering, assumes the appearance it has when we see it. The largest, heaviest, and least shrivelled, is the best. The pepper plant flourishes in the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon, and more particularly on the Malabar coast. It is not sown but planted; and great nicety is required in the choice of the shoots. It produces no fruit till the end of three years; but bears so plentifully the three succeeding years, that some plants yield between six and seven pounds of pepper. The bark then begins to shrink; and the shrub declines so fast that in twelve years it ceases bearing. The culture of pepper is not difficult: it is sufficient to plant it in a rich soil, and carefully to pull up the weeds that grow in great abundance round its roots, especially the first three years. As the sun is highly necessary to the growth of the pepper plant, when it is ready to bear, the trees that support it must be lopped to prevent their shade from injuring the fruit. When the season is over, it is proper to crop the head of the plant. Without this precaution, there would be too much wood, and little fruit. See a full account of the method of cultivating pepper in Sumatra, in Marsden's History of Sumatra, or New Annual Register, 1783. The pepper exported from Malabar, which was formerly entirely in the hands of the Portuguese, and is at present divided between the Dutch, British, and French, amounts to about 10,000,000 weight.

PIPERINE is a name given to a new vegetable principle extracted from black pepper by M. Pelletier. To obtain it, black pepper was digested repeatedly in alcohol, and the solution

evaporated, until a fatty resinous matter was left. This, on being washed in warm water, became of a good green color. It had a hot and burning taste; dissolved readily in alcohol, less so in ether. Concentrated sulphuric acid gave it a fine scarlet color. The alcoholic solution after some days deposited crystals; which were purified by repeated crystallisation in alcohol and ether. They then formed colorless foursided prisms, with single inclined terminations. They have scarcely any taste. Boiling water dissolves a small portion; but not cold water. They are soluble in acetic acid: from which combination feather-formed crystals are obtained. This substance fuses at 212° Fahrenheit. The fatty matter left after extracting the piperine is solid at a temperature near 32°, but liquifies at a slight heat. It has an extremely bitter and acrid taste, is very slightly volatile, tending rather to decompose than to rise in vapor. It may be considered as composed of two oils: one volatile and balsamic, the other more fixed, and containing the acrimony of the pepper. PIPE TREE. The lilac tree. PIPE TREE, in botany. PIPKIN, n. s. Diminutive of pipe, a vessel. A small earthen boiler.

See SYRINGA.

Some officer might give consent To a large covered pipkin in his tent. King. A pipkin there like Homer's tripod walks. Pope. PIPLEY, or PIPALI, a town of Hindostan, in the province of Orissa, district of Mohurbunge, situated on the Subuenreeka River, twenty-two miles north-east from Balasore. About the middle of the seventeenth century this was a great resort of European trade, whence the Dutch shipped annually 2000 tons of salt and the first permission obtained by the English from the Mogul emperors to trade with Bengal was restricted to this place, now almost unknown. Since that period the floods have washed away great part of the town.

PIPLY, a town in the province of Orissa, district of Cuttak, thirty miles south from the town of Cuttak.

PIP'PIN, n. s. Dutch puppynghe.-Skinner. A sharp apple.

You shall see mine orchard, where, in an arbour, we will eat a last year's pippin of my own graffing.

Shakspeare.

Pippins take their name from the small spots or pips that usually appear on the sides of them: some are called stone pippins from their obdurateness; some Kentish pippins, because they agree well with that soil; others French pippins, having their original from France, which is the best bearer of any of these pippins; the Holland pippin and the russet pippin, from its russet hue; but such as are distinguished by the names of grey and white pippins are of equal goodness; they are generally a very pleasant fruit and of good juice, but slender bearers.

Mortimer's Husbandry. Entertain yourself with a pippin roasted. Harvey. The pippin-women I look upon as fabulous. Addison. His foaming tusks let some large pippin grace, Or 'midst those thundering spears an orange place.

King.

This pippin shall another trial make: See from the core two kernels brown I take. Gay.

PIPRA, in ornithology, a genus of birds of the order of passeres. Latham gives it the name of manakin, and so does Buffon, who informs us that it was bestowed upon them by the Dutch settlers in Surinam. Latham describes twentyfive different species, and five varieties. The general character is, that the bill is short, strong, hard, and slightly incurvated, and the nostrils are naked. The middle toe is connected to the outer as far as the third joint: this character, however, is not universal, some species differing in this particular. The tail is short. This genus has a considerable resemblance to the genus parus, or titmouse. They are supposed to inhabit South America only, but Mr. Latham has seen many of those species which he has described, that came from other parts, which certainly belong to this genus.-Buffon differs widely in his arrangement from him, and only enumerates six species. He gives the following account of the genus in general:- The natural habits common to them all were not known, and the observations which have been made are still insufficient to admit an exact detail. We shall only relate the remarks communicated to us by Sonnini of Manoncour, who saw many of these birds in their native climates. They inhabit the immense forests in the warm parts of America, and never emerge from their recesses to visit the cleared grounds of the vicinity of the plantations. They fly with considerable swiftness, but always at a small height, and to short distances; they never perch on the summits of trees, but on the middle branches; they feed upon small wild fruits, and also eat insects. They generally occur in small bodies of eight or ten of the same species, and sometimes intermingle with other flocks of the same genus, or even of a different genus, such as the Cayenne warblers, &c. It is commonly in the morning that they are found thus assembled, and then seem to be joyous, and warble their delicate little notes. The freshness of the air seems to inspire the song; for they are silent during the burning heat of the day, and disperse and retire to the shade of the thickest part of the forest. This habit is observed, indeed, in many kinds of birds, and even in those of the woods of France, where they collect to sing in the morning and evening; but the manakins never assemble in the evening, and continue together only from sun-rise to nine or ten o'clock A. M. and remain separate during the rest of the day and the succeeding night. In general they prefer a cool humid situation, though they never frequent marshes or the margins of lakes.'

1. P. musicalis, or, as Mr. Latham calls it, the tuneful manakin. Its length is four inches, the bill is dusky, the forehead yellow, and the crown and nape blue: the chin, sides of the head below the eyes, and the throat, are black; the upper part of the back, the wings, and the tail, are dusky black; the tail is very short; the lower part of the back and rump, the breast, belly, vent, and thighs, are orange-colored; the legs are