1881-1898.—Establishment of complete French rule.-Achievements.-"Already, on November 20, 1881, Gambetta, then French Premier, and Jules Ferry, influenced by the opinions of Baron de Courcel and Saint-Hilaire, had determined upon the establishment of a thorough-going French rule in Tunisia, the first move toward which was the appointment of Paul Cambon. On March 27, 1883, a law was authorized by Ali Bey establishing a system of French courts in the leading cities, the details of which were provided in the later decrees of April 14, 1883, and July 9, 1884. This was followed by an ordinance dated May 5, giving these courts jurisdiction over all foreigners who gave up their extraterritoriality. Thereupon, Great Britain in December, 1883, and Italy, AustriaHungary, Germany, and the Netherlands in 1884, issued orders abolishing, respectively, their consular jurisdictions in Tunisia. Conditions remained far from satisfactory; and it was evident that the proper adjustments would not take place or the introduction of reforms essential to the development and progress of the country be possible under the existing régime. The French, therefore, decided to strengthen their position and secure the necessary powers to inaugurate a comprehensive reform plan. On June 8, 1883, Paul Cambon secured a new treaty from the Bey, known as the Convention of Marsa, in which Ali agreed to permit such administrative, judicial, and financial reforms as the French deemed advisable, and the French promised to guarantee loans of 120,000,000 francs on the Consolidated Debt and 17,550,000 francs on the Floating Debt of Tunisia. The interest charge on these loans was to be a first lien on the revenues of the regency, and the expenses of the Tunisian administration and of the protectorate. Thus was accomplished the final step in the creation of a French protectorate over the dominions of the Bey of Tunis. . . . The lines of French expansion in North Africa had been definitely determined, and the security of the French position in Algeria assured by the acquisition of Tunisia. It was a costly affair, however, the French exchequer being drawn upon for over $12,600,000 in the years 1881 and 1882 alone. . . . Instead of attempting to impose any French system of law or government upon the country, the French authorities worked out the necessary reforms in finance, justice, and administration with the local customs, methods, and institutions as a basis. A system of French supervision, similar in theory to that of the British in Egypt, was imposed quietly but effectively upon every branch of the state and local public service. . . . By the decrees of April 22, 1882, November 10, 1884, and June 23, 1885, the position and powers of the Resident-General were definitely determined. While responsible directly to French Minister of Foreign Affairs, he was entrusted with an extensive discretionary authority and a wide freedom of action. He has command of all the naval and military forces of Tunisia, approves all general legislation and that affecting French colonists, and presides over the cabinet of the Bey, whom he serves as Minister of Foreign Affairs and whom he counsels on all financial, administrative, or other reforms. . . . Public order and security were established throughout the land. .. Over a hundred thousand people fled into Tripoli at the time of the French invasion, but within a few years all except some three hundred had returned. Numerous public improvements have been introduced, including telegraphs, telephones, posts, government buildings, schools, hospitals, over

the

2500 miles of splendid national roads and 949 miles of railway. The substantial progress of Tunisia is shown nowhere better than in the development of its trade. In 1885, the total of its exports and imports amounted only to about $9,200,000; but twenty-five years later-in 1910-this total had multiplied approximately fivefold, reaching $45,179,000. About one half of the imports in this year came from France, one eighth from Algeria and Great Britain, and one twentieth from Italy. Of the exports, France again received about one half, but Italy was favored with nearly one fifth, while one tenth went to England and one twentieth to Algeria. The chief exports are grain, phosphates, and a goodly product of cattle, esparto grass, olive oil, and lead, iron, and zinc ore. The leading imports include cotton goods, iron, hardware, flour, and machinery. While the French attempts at colonization and irrigation have not yielded as yet any noteworthy results [see CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: France: 1910-1917]—only about 1,000,000 hectares being cultivated at present out of a possible 12,000,000,-a good deal of French and Italian capital has been invested in the country to the great improvement of trade and other conditions generally."-N. D. Harris, Intervention and colonization in Africa, pp. 236-239, 241.-In 1898, the general results produced in Tunis by seventeen years of French control were described in an elaborate report to the British government by its representative in the protectorate, or regency, Sir H. Johnston. The following is quoted from that report: "The protectorate of Tunis is nominally an Arab Kingdom, ruled by a prince of Turkish descent under the guidance and control of a French Minister Resident-General and a staff of French officials. . . . The personal staff of the ResidentGeneral consists of about nine members. In addition, the French Government is more or less directly represented throughout the Regency by officials corresponding almost exactly to our viceconsuls, collectors and assistant-collectors in our African Protectorates, with this difference, that the collectors are called 'contrôleurs.' . . . The whole of Tunisia is now under civil administration, except the Sahara district to the south of Gabes, which still remains under military control. . . . In the districts which I visited, the natives, talking to me freely, said that they would sooner be under the rule of any Frenchman than under that of their own kaids. The French are face to face here with the same problem that we find so difficult in other oriental countries-that of creating amongst the natives a body of public officials who will keep their hands from picking and stealing, and their tongues from evil speaking, lying and slandering. No tyrant is so cruel to an Arab as an Arab; no one is harder on Muhammadans than their co-religionists. Justice is administered to Europeans, and to the protected subjects of European powers, by French tribunals, which equally deal with cases arising between Europeans and Tunisians. . . . Justice is administered to natives, in cases where natives alone are concerned, by Arab courts depending directly on the Tunisian Government, but with a Frenchman at the head of each principal department. At all the centres of population there are Arab courts of justice. The Court of Appeal for the French courts in Tunis is the Supreme Court of Algiers; the appeal from the Arab courts is to the Bey. . . . Public works are entirely under French control, though Tunisians are employed in minor posts. . . . Public education is under French and Arab direction. . . . In ad

dition to Government-supported schools, a large number of private establishments have sprung up at Tunis and at Sfax. . . . In 1880 life and property were thoroughly insecure. The property of Europeans, perhaps, was safe, provided they were the subjects of a Power able to coerce the Government of Tunis, and their lives were not in any great danger in the principal towns; but it would have been impossible for any European to have travelled about many parts of the Regency without a considerable escort; impossible, indeed, to penetrate some parts of the Regency at all unless at the head of an army. . . . The whole Regency of Tunis is now as safe for tourists as France."-Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications (Papers by command, 1898, C. 8649-18, pp. 10-15, 2-3).

1919. French plans for development of country. After the World War France declared her policy of a more intensive cultivation of her colonies. On behalf of plans for the further development of Tunis, Étienne Flandin, French resident-general in 1919, advocated the consolidating of French control in the interior by a systematic filling up of the depleted ranks of colonists. This was to be through an employment agency which would especially attract war veterans and orphans. On the other hand, native interests received consideration when Flandin insisted "on the necessity of safeguarding, from the point of view of Muhammadan Arabian France, their moral and political preponderance in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean. He had recalled on frequent occasions that the French pacification in Tunisia, as in the remainder of northern Africa, could not present durable guarantees if it did not extend to Syria, to Aleppo, and above all to Damascus, that great center of Arab Islam. He was confident that such a religious and political solidarity would be consecrated by the peace. Their work in Tunisia had been sufficiently splendid and the Regency had too well proved its loyalty for the circumstances of its future with regard to the Mediterranean to be allowed to drop out."-Christian Science Moniter, Apr. 24, 1919.-See also AFRICA: Modern European occupation: 1914-1920: Climatic conditions; Lack of railway and industrial development.

or even the hand of Germany! In general the French press of the colony demands the sternest measures of repression."-French in Tunis (American Review of Reviews, Dec., 1922, p. 659).-Late in 1922 the government's experiment of regional councils for native participation in ruling the country went into effect. The five council centers are Tunis, Bizerta, Susa, Kef and Sfax. TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE. See TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE.

TUNNEL, Channel. See CHANNEL TUNNEL. TUPAC AMARU (José Gabriel Condorcanqui) (1742-1781), Peruvian revolutionist. Led a revolt against the Spaniards in Peru, 1780. See PERU: 1550-1816.

TUPAMBAY, Battle of (1832). See URUGUAY: 1821-1905.

TUPI, GUARANI, TUPUYAS.-"The first Indians with whom the Portuguese came in contact, on the discovery of Brazil, called themselves Tupinama, a term derived by Barnhagen from Tupi and Mba, something like warrior or nobleman; by Martius from Tupi and Anamba (relative) with the signification 'belonging to the Tupi tribe.' These Tupi dwell on the east coast of Brazil, and with their language the Portuguese were soon familiar. It was found especially serviceable as a means of communication with other tribes, and this led the Jesuits later to develop it as much as possible, and introduce it as a universal language of intercourse with the Savages. Thus the 'lingua geral Brasilica' arose, which must be regarded as a Tupi with a Portuguese pronunciation. The result was a surprising one, for it really succeeded in forming, for the tribes of Brazil, divided in language, a universal means of communication. Without doubt the wide extent of the Tupi was very favorable, especially since on this side of the Andes, as far as the Caribbean Sea, the continent of South America was overrun with Tupi hordes. . . . Von Martius has endeavored to trace their various migrations and abodes, by which they have acquired a sort of ubiquity in tropical South America. . . . This history. . . leads to the supposition that, had the discovery been delayed a few centuries, the Tupi might have become the lords of eastern South America, and have spread a higher culture over that region. The Tupi family may be divided, according to their fixed abodes, into the southern, northern, eastern, western, and central Tupi; all these are again divided into a number of smaller tribes. The southern Tupi are usually called Guarani (warriors), a name which the Jesuits first introduced. It cannot be determined from which direction they came. The greatest number are in Paraguay and the Argentine province of Corrientes. The Jesuits brought them to a very high degree of civilization. The eastern Tupi, the real Tupinamba, are scattered along the Atlantic coast from St. Catherina Island to the mouth of the Amazon. They are a very weak tribe. They say they came from the south and west. The northern Tupi are a weak and widely scattered remnant of a large tribe, and are now in the province of Para, on the island of Marajo, and along both banks of the Amazon. It is somewhat doubtful if this peaceable tribe are really Tupi. . . . The central Tupi live in several free hordes between the Tocantins and Madeira. . . . Cutting off the heads of enemies is in vogue among them. . . . The Mundrucu are especially the head-hunting tribe. The western Tupi all live in Bolivia. They are the only ones who came in contact with the Inca empire, and their character and manners show the

1920.- French protectorate recognized by Treaty of Sèvres. See SÈVRES, TREATY OF (1920): Part III: Political clauses: Morocco, Tunis.

1922. "Reform" party and the government."The 'Young Tunisian' or 'Reform' party, created about 1907 under the leadership of the gifted and ill-fated Ali Bach Hamba [included in 1922], seven-eighths of the educated natives. Many of the present leaders have been graduated, like him, from the best universities and law schools-or even military schools of France. A hundred thousand natives of Tunisia served gallantly in the World War, of whom only half came home. . . . Among those now agitating for a written constitution, and an assembly at least half composed of Mussulman natives, with control of taxation and appropriations, there are on the one hand some leaders with liberal French education, sincerely loyal to the Republic: and at the other extreme at least one fanatical adherent to Mohammedan dress, language and manners, who raises openly the cry "Martyred Tunisia,' and laments the Golden Age when the Bey was real master in Tunis. Persecution may serve only to drive these coreligionists into political unity also. . . . The malcontents imagine that the mere grant of the 'Destour' (Constitution would suffice to make life easy. The French of Tunis see in this Bolshevistic agitation,

of

influence of this. Some are a picture of idyllic gayety and patriarchal mildness."-Standard natural history (J. S. Kingsley, ed., v. 6, pp. 248249). "In frequent contiguity with the Tupis was another stock, also widely dispersed through Brazil, called the Tupuyas, of whom the Botocudos in eastern Brazil are the most prominent tribe. To them also belong the Ges nations, south of the lower Amazon, and others. They are on a low grade of culture, going quite naked, not cultivating the soil, ignorant of pottery, and with poorly made canoes. They are dolichocephalic, and must have inhabited the country a long time."-D. G. Brinton, Races and peoples, pp. 269-270.-See also INDIANS, AMERICAN: Cultural areas in South America: Amazon area.

TUPPER, Sir Charles (1821-1915), Canadian statesman. Prime minister of Nova Scotia, 18641867; president of the privy council of Canada, 1870-1872; high commissioner for Canada at London, 1884-1887; 1888-1896; premier of Canada, 1896. See NOVA SCOTIA: 1782-1869; 1867; HIGH COMMISSIONER.

TUPUYAS, South American Indian tribe. See

TUPI.

TURAN. "The old Persians, who spoke an Aryan tongue, called their own land Iran, and the barbarous land to the north of it they called Turan. In their eyes, Iran was the land of light, and Turan was the land of darkness. From this Turan, the land of Central Asia, came the many Turkish settlements which made their way, first into Western Asia and then into Europe."-E. A. Freeman, Ottoman power in Europe, ch. 2.-See also IRAN; TURANIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES.

TURANIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES.The name Turanian has been given to a large group of peoples, mostly Asiatic, whose languages are all in the agglutinative stage and bear evident marks of a family relationship. "This race, one of the largest, both numerically and with regard to the extent of territory which it occupies, is divided into two great branches, the Ugro-finnish and the Dravidian The first must be again subdivided into the Turkish, including the populations of Turkestan and of the Steppes of Central Asia, as well as the Hungarians who have been for a long time settled in Europe; and the Uralo-finnish group, comprising the Finns, the Esthonians, the Tchoudes, and, in general, nearly all the tribes of the north of Europe and Asia. The country of the Dravidian branch is, on the contrary, to the south. This branch is in fact composed of the indigenous people of the Peninsula of Hindustan; Tamuls, Telingas, Carnates, who were subjugated by the Arian race, and who appear to have originally driven before them the negroes of the Australian group, the original inhabitants of the soil, who are now represented by the almost savage tribe of the Khonds. The Turanian race is one of the oldest in the world. . . . The skulls discovered in France, England and Belgium, in caves of the close of the quaternary epoch, appear from their characteristics to belong to a Turanian race, to the Uralofinnish group, and particularly resemble those of the Esthonians. Wherever the Japhetic or pure Indo-European race extended, it seems to have encountered a Turanian population which it conquered and finally amalgamated with itself."-F. Lenormant, Manual of ancient history of the East, bk. 1, ch. 4.-"Not only were distant stocks like Finns and Manchus quite unaware of any common Turanian bond, but even obvious kindred like Ottoman Turks and Central Asian Turkomans regarded

one another with indifference or contempt. Arminius Vambéry tells how, when he first visited Constantinople in 1856, 'the word Turkluk (i. e., "Turk") was considered an opprobrious synonym of grossness and savagery, and when I used to call people's attention to the racial importance of the Turkish stock (stretching from Adrianople to the Pacific) they answered: "But you are surely not classing us with Kirghiz and with the gross nomads of Tartary."' . . . It was, in fact, the labors of Western ethnologists like the Hungarian Vambéry and the Frenchman Léon Cahun that first cleared away the mists which enshrouded Turan. These labors disclosed the unexpected vastness of the Turanian world. And this presently acquired a most unacademic significance. The writings of Vambéry and his colleagues spread far and wide through Turan and were there devoured by receptive minds already stirring to the obscure promptings of a new time. . . . Of course one may query whether these diverse peoples actually do form one genuine race. But, as we have already seen, so far as practical politics go, that makes no difference."-L. Stoddard, New world of Islam, pp. 193-194, 193.-See also ETRUSCANS; PACIFIC OCEAN: B. C. 2500-A. D. 1500; PAN-TURANISM; PHILOLOGY: 20.

TURATI, Filippo (1857- ), Italian Socialist. See SOCIALISM: 1869-1920.

TURBINES. See STEAM AND GAS ENGINES: Steam Turbine engines; ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY: Survey of late inventions; INVENTIONS: 19th century: Power.

TURCOMANS. See TURKOMANS.

TURDETANI.-"There is a tradition that the Turdetani (round Seville) possessed lays from very ancient times, a metrical book of laws, of 6,000 verses, and even historical records. At any rate, this tribe is described as the most civilized of all the Spanish tribes, and at the same time the least warlike."-T. Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. 3, ch. 7.-"The most mixed portion of the Peninsular population. . . is that of the water-system of the Guadalquiver and the parts immediately south and east of it, . . . the country of the Turdetani and Bastitani, if we look to the ancient populations -Bætica, if we adopt the general name of the Romans, Andalusia in modern geography; . . . it was the Iberians of these parts who were the first to receive foreign intermixture, and the last to lose it."-R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, ch. 2.

TÜRDETANIA, ancient name of modern Andalusia, in Spain, known still more anciently as Tartessus. See TARTESSUS.

TURENNE, Henri de Latour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de (1611-1675), marshal of France. Served in the Dutch War of Independence, 1625; left Holland and entered the service of France, 1630. Campaign in Thirty Years' War and the war with Spain. See ITALY: 1635-1659; GERMANY: 1640-1645; 1643-1644; 1646-1648.

Wars of the Fronde. See FRANCE: 1649; 16501651; 1651-1653.

Campaigns against the Spaniards under Condé. See FRANCE: 1653-1656; 1655-1658.

Campaign in the Netherlands. See NETHERLANDS: 1672-1674; 1674-1678.

TURGEIS, or Thorgies (died 844), Danish king of North Ireland, 832-844. Invaded Ireland, 832. See IRELAND: 9th-10th centuries; SCANDINAVIAN STATES: 8th-9th centuries.

TURGENEV, Ivan (1818-1883), Russian novelist. See RUSSIAN LITERATURE: 1855-1889.

TURGOT, Anne Robert Jacques, Baron de Laune (1727-1781), French statesman and economist. Intendant of Limoges, 1761-1774 and minister of marine, 1774; controller-general of finance, 1774-1776; in this capacity introduced many reforms including the abolition of the corvée or the forced employment of the peasants without remuneration upon the building and repairing of roads. See FRANCE: 1761-1773; 1774-1778; 1789: Survey of France on the eve of the revolution: Literary forerunners; GUILDS: Modern times; FRENCH LITERATURE: 1700-1800; HISTORY: 25; ECONOMICS: 18th century: Physiocrats.

TURIERO, South American Indian tribe. See CHIBCHAS.

TURIN, capital of the province of Piedmont in northwestern Italy, with a population of 427,106. It has many famous buildings of great architectural beauty and a university founded in 1400. Because of its proximity to the St. Gotthard tunnel and the Simplon pass it has become a great railway

center.

312.-Defeat of Maxentius by Constantine. See ROME: Empire: 305-323.

11th-12th centuries.-Acquisition of Republican independence. See ITALY: 1056-1152.

12th century.-Included in the original Italian possessions of the House of Savoy. See SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: 11th-15th centuries.

1536-1544. Occupation by the French and restoration to the duke of Savoy. See FRANCE: 1532-1547

1559.-Held by France while other territory of the duke of Savoy was restored to him. See FRANCE: 1547-1559.

1562-1580.-Evacuation by the French.-Establishment of the seat of government by Duke Emanuel Philibert.-Increased importance. See SAVOY AND PIEDMONT: 1559-1580.

1639-1657.- Extraordinary siege within a siege. The citadel, and its restoration by France to the duke of Savoy. See ITALY: 16351659.

1706.-Siege by the French and rout of the besiegers. See ITALY: 1701-1713.

1861-1865.-Capital of new kingdom of Italy. See ITALY: 1859-1861; 1862-1866.

1915-1918.-Base in the World War.-During the World War, Turin was an important base for military operations on the north Italian front.

1917-1920.-Riots.-In August, 1917, and at various times during the three following years, riots broke out, involving the Communists or Socialists and the Fascisti, as the militant nationalists were called.

TURIN PAPYRUS, Egyptian papyrus preserved in the Turin museum, for which it was purchased from M. Drovetti, consul-general of France. "If this papyrus were entire, the science of Egyptian antiquities could not possess a more valuable document. It contains a list of all the mythical or historical personages who were believed to have reigned in Egypt, from fabulous times down to a period we cannot ascertain, because the end of the papyrus is wanting. Compiled under Ramses II. (19th dynasty), that is, in the most flourishing epoch of the history of Egypt, this list has all the characteristics of an official document, and gives us the more valuable assistance, as the name of each king is followed by the duration of his reign, and each dynasty by the total number of years during which it governed Egypt. Unfortunately this inestimable treasure exists only in very small pieces (164 in num

ber), which it is often impossible to join correctly." -F. Lenormant, Manual of ancient history of the East, bk. 3, ch. 1, sect. 2.-See also HISTORY: 14.

TURKESTAN, name given to regions of central Asia, encompassed by Siberia on the north, the Caspian sea on the west, Afghanistan and India on the south, and Mongolia on the east. (See ASIA: Map.) A part of Afghanistan including Badakshan has been referred to as included in Turkestan in the broadest meaning of the term. Turkestan, however, is generally considered as applying to either that division of Russia in Central Asia, comprising the provinces of Samarkand, Ferghana, Syr-Darya and Semiryechensk called Western or Russian Turkestan; or to a dependency of China, sometimes called Kashgaria which lies to the north of Tibet and forms part of the province called by the Chinese, Sin-Kiang. This country is known as Eastern or Chinese Turkestan. (See CHINESE TURKESTAN.)

The region which is commonly designated as Chinese or Eastern Turkestan is watered by the Yarkand and Khotan rivers, which unite to form the Tarim. The elliptical Tarim basin is separated by the Tian-Shan mountains from Dzungaria (see ZUNGARIA) lying to the north, and by the Kuen-Lun mountains from Tibet on the south. It extends over an area of 354,000 square miles, of which over half is desert land. The hold of Chinese authority is of the very slightest degree, particularly since the revolution of 1911, over the inhabitants of this region. (See TURANIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES.) In fact all the Chinese territory between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on the south is regarded as a separate province with its civil governor residing in the north at Ili, the capital. Its neighbor, Outer Mongolia, is even more independent. Nominally, under Chinese officials, each is autonomous at the present time. The total population is estimated at about 2,000,000. Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion.-See also YAKUB. BEG, DOMINION OF.

Russian or Western Turkestan is a government of the Soviet republic of Russia, consisting of the provinces of Ferghana, Samarkand, Syr-Darya and Semiryechensk in Central Asia, having together a population of approximately 7,000,000 and covering an area of 57,700 square miles. Tashkent is the capital, with 300,000 inhabitants, and Kokand and Samarkand, each having a population of over 100,000, are important cities. Turkestan also originally included the Transcaspian province, the Bokhara amirate and the khanate of Khiva. Physically, western Turkestan, besides the Syr-Darya, has the lower Ili, flowing through Semiryechensk into Lake Balkhash, and the Zerafshan, along which the Transcaspian railroad runs to the city of Andijan. In the past, however, the passes of the lofty mountain systems have determined the great caravan routes of this historic region, some of which, like the rivers, are now lost in the desert. Irrigation in Russian Turkestan extends to 4,000,000 acres and is particularly advantageous to the orchards and gardens, the water being distributed according to each family's needs under Moslem law. The agricultural class is industrious, honest and sober. Cotton is one of the principal crops in the Ferghana province.

6th century.-Turkish conquest. See TURKEY: 6th century.

710.-Mohammedan conquest. See CALIPHATE:

710.

1073-1092.-Annexed by Malek Shar. See TURKEY: 1073-1092.

1220.-Conquests of Jenghiz Khan. See MONGOLIA: 1153-1227; KHUAREZM: 12th century. 14th century.-Conquests of Timur. See TI

MUR.

1859-1865.-Russian conquest. See RUSSIA: 1859-1881; ASIA: 1500-1900.

1895.-Anglo-Russian agreement concerning "spheres of influence" in the Pamirs. See AFGHANISTAN: 1895.

1916.-Condition of Turkestan under Russian tsarist rule.-Mobilization in World War.-Revolt. "In 1916 the natives revolted when the news that the Moslem races were called up to serve in the Russian army, reached the bazars of Central Asia and the remote Kirghiz nomad villages. They had long had grievances against Russian rule. Requisition of their land and their rights and every form of oppression became worse under the Russian czars than it had been under the despotic khans. There was neither justice nor freedom for the sons of the steppes and the mountains. The mobilization to serve in the army of their oppressors was the last drop that overflowed the cup of resentment. The Kirghiz, Sarts and other tribes of Semiryechensk attacked the principal town of the region, Verny, and annihilated the Cossacks to the last man, capturing 5,000 Russian officials and civilians and carrying them off as hostages into the mountains. The mutiny, of course, was suppressed by a merciless punitive expedition, but the suppression was only temporary."-B. L. T. Roustam Bek, First Mohammedan republic (Asia, May, 1920, p. 388).

1917-1920. Bolshevist activities. Ataman Dutov's resistance.-Destruction of Kokand."The Red Terror, nourished by German trade agencies, had laid hold of Tashkent and spread over all the Russian dominion in Turkestan, where 180,000 Germans, Austrians, and Magyars had been confined in their prison camps. Amongst these were the men that had been the garrison of Przemysl. In October 1917 all were 'comrades,' so of course there could be no prisoners, and the kindly Soviet opened the gates in the barbed wire and discontinued the ration issue. Ninety thousand ex-prisoners of war died during that winter. Many of the survivors joined the Red Army, some fled to Afghanistan, and some worked for, or starved with, the easy-going Kirghiz and Sarts. . . . In Turkistan, missions, under various cloaks, organized the surviving prisoners into battalions and brigades, gave them good new uniforms and boots, and tried to smuggle trained specialists to Afghanistan. ... The three years' cotton crop of Ferghana and Sir Daria, many thousands of tons. . . lay rotting in the warehouses of Turkistan, or served as bulletproof protection on Bolshevik armoured trains. The Orenburg Cossacks, under Ataman Dutov, had achieved much success against the Red Army in 1918 in the steppes north of Tashkent. . . . [But] they lost the city, though they retained a hold of the Orenburg Railway that connects Moscow with Tashkent. This circumstance was of no little value to the Allies, since it prevented the Turkistan cotton crop from being sent to Germany by that route. In fact, the operations of this loyalist army of Orenburg Cossacks form a fine chapter in the story of the war, and one that has not come into the limelight. For three years this

force of Ataman Dutov's, averaging some seven thousand strong, often without ammunition, fighting with swords and lances, held its own against the Red forces all round them. They were quite isolated from Allied help, and in fact from any other loyal force, except for the brief period when they were in touch with the army of Admiral Kolchak, himself a Cossack. Meanwhile the Musalman of Tashkent, Kokand, and Bukhara revolted against the Soviet. In all three cities the rising was suppressed with great slaughter. Kokand was razed to the ground by high explosive shell-fire, and thirty thousand souls were reported massacred: it had been one of the greatest commercial cities in Asia. In Bukhara one Kolesov used armoured cars in the crowded streets, which ran with blood. Although the Reds gained control over the city, to this day they have little or no hold over the country districts, where large bands of Uzbegs and Kipchaks roam the valleys, maintaining a guerilla warfare against any Bolshevik force that leaves the railway and the guns of its armoured trains." -L. V. S. Blacker, Travels in Turkistan, 1918-1920 (Geographical Journal, Sept., 1921, pp. 178-181).— See also WORLD WAR: 1918: VI. Turkish theater: b, 5.

1922-1923.-Mohammedan revolt.-Reorganization of Soviet rule in Bokhara.-"Young Bokhara" party.-Economic conditions in Ferghana province. Radium discovery.-Early in 1922, Enver Pasha, a former Turkish military leader, joined the revolting emir of Bokhara against the Bolsheviki, captured Bokhara and other cities in quick succession and was proclaimed emir of Turkestan by the victorious Mohammedans. Peace terms between Enver Pasha and the Bolsheviki on the basis of recognition of the Turkish leader's authority over Turkestan were reported to be in negotiation late in the year. The insurgent forces were, however, apparently routed and scattered and the republican government in Bokhara was reorganized under soviet control. In the meantime the nationalist propaganda seems to have been more or less active. "A mission representing the 'Young Bokhara' Party . . . [went to] Afghanistan early in June with the object of enlisting sympathy and material support for its plan of a Turkestan National Republic. The mission claimed that a widespread movement was afoot for the establishment of a Federation of Central Asian Moslem States." -New York Times Current History, Oct., 1923, p. 175. "The Deputy President of the Central Executive Committee, who arrived in Moscow on Aug. 13, informed the Soviet Government that 387,000 of the population of Ferghana were doomed this year to starvation, and that malaria was increasing so rapidly in Daghestan that whole villages had been wiped out. Last year's 170,000 head of cattle in Ferghana had already dwindled to 37,000. Before the war the province had 170,000 horses, but now only 27,000. On Sept. 6 the Radium Institute in Petrograd announced that the expedition it had sent into Ferghana had discovered what was probably the world's largest deposit of radium."—Ibid, Oct., 1923, p. 175.

ALSO IN: G. Macartney, Chinese Turkestan: Past and present (Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1922, v. 22, pp. 534-536).—W. Stern, Glimpses of Russian Turkestan (Manchester Geographical Society Journal, 1920, v. 34, PP. 9-17).