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318. The freezing point of water is immutable, 319. The

graduation of the thermometer, 320. The principle upon

which the Barometer is constructed, 321.

of the freezing of water continued, 322. Powerful expan-

sion of water during its transition into ice, ib. Experimental

illustration of this curious and important fact, 323. Benefi-

cial effects that result throughout nature from the expansive

force of water in freezing, 324. Rupture of water-pipes and

bottles by frost, 326. Burning lens formed of a block of

transparent ice, 327. The antiseptic power of ice, 329.

The preservation of provisions in ice, ib. The collection of

ice in the vicinity of London, 330. The construction of an

ice-house or ice-well, 331. The sheet of ice upon a pond

frequently causes the fishes to perish by preventing the escape

of the results of their respiration, 334. Wonderful provision

made in Nature for the preservation of the life of fishes dur-

ing Winter, 335. The "frost-smoke," 336. The congela-

tion of water contained in foot-prints, hoof-marks, and wagon

ruts, 337. The phenomenon of "ground ice," or ice formed

at the bottom of rivers, 339. The phenomenon of snow,

342. Crystaline form of snow flakes, ib. Snow is a great

preservative against the effects of cold, 343. Construction.

of snow-houses by the Esquimaux, 344. Warmth of these

dwellings, 346. Red snow of the Arctic regions, 348. The

collection of snow by the Neapolitans, ib. The preservation

of snow on Mount Etna, by the non-conducting power of

volcanic sand, 349. The reflection of solar heat by white,

and its absorption by black surfaces, illustrated upon snow,

ib. The phenomenon of hoar-frost, 351. Imitation of the

appearance of hoar-frost upon branches, 353. Beautiful forms

of hoar-frost upon various objects, 355. The formation of

icicles, 357. Neither cold nor heat alters the chemical con-

stitution of water, ib. Phenomena that ensue during the

elevation of water to its boiling-point, experimentally illus-

trated, 358. Atmospheric pressure affects the temperature

at which water enters into ebullition, 364. The vapor of

water the motive power of the steam-engine, 370. Experi-

ments concerning the decomposition of water, 373. Enor-

mous volume of Oxygen and Hydrogen gases contained in a

drop of water, 380. Separation of Nitrogen from the Atmo-

sphere, ib. Examination of the chemical philosophy of an

"English fire-side," 383. The ascent of flame, 384. Acci-

dents by dresses catching fire, 385. Reason why flame is

applied to the lowest part of the fuel in a fire-grate, 386.

Remarks concerning the warming of an apartment by an open

fire, 388. Production of gas from coal, for the purpose of

artificial illumination, 396. The importance of coal, 399.

The fire-damp of coal mines, 400. The miner's safety lamp,

401. Coke a valuable fuel for the reduction of metals, 404.

Utility of the metals for the construction of culinary imple-

ments, 406. Destruction of matter does not ensue during

combustion, 407. Ordinary sources of artificial light and

heat, 408. Different sensations experienced upon touching

different substances having similar temperatures, 409. The

terms heat and cold are merely relative, 413. Aëriform sub-

stances extremely susceptible of change of volume by change

of temperature, 415. The specific gravity of air and gases,

ib. The winter clothing of animals, 417. The transition of

ice into water upon the return of Spring, 418. Experiments

concerning latent heat, 420. Latent heat of the vapor of

water, 429. Miraculous adjustments of temperature during

the thawing of ice, 432. The magnitude of the earth as com-

pared with the size of man, 434. The study of Chemistry and

of all the high sciences is well suited to keep down a spirit

of arrogance and intellectual pride, 435. Conclusion, 437.

CHEMISTRY

OF

THE FOUR SEASONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE FOUR SEASONS present many phenomena which admit of interpretation through the Science of Chemistry. Some persons imagine that the science of chemistry consists entirely of experiments with furnaces, crucibles, alkalies, acids, salts and metals, which are all more curious than useful, and they will ask-Can the chemist emerge from the narrow precincts of his laboratory, and venture upon the boundless realms of Nature, with explanations concerning the verdure of Spring, the heat of Summer, the harvest of Autumn, and the cold of Winter?

The reply of the chemist is in the affirmative; he can expound such phenomena to a certain extent, for the chief object of chemistry is to ascertain the composition of things, and to determine the laws by which they are governed.

By numerous experiments with furnaces, crucibles, alkalies, acids, salts and metals, the chemist has obtained a key to the vast laboratory of Nature, and, although

standing merely upon the threshold of its newly-opened portal, if he temper his little knowledge with humility, he may witness and understand many of the gigantic and refined operations therein proceeding, under the guiding and protecting hand of Almighty God, for maintaining the regularity and order of the Four Seasons.

The most prominent features of Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter, may be thus briefly enumerated:In Spring the earth is covered with verdure; buds and blossoms vary and adorn its surface; soft showers descend; the air is clear; sunshine glads the heavens, and steadily increases in power unto the fervent glow of Summer; then, generally speaking, vegetation has attained its fullness; the earth is crowned with foliage and flowers; the fields are becoming ripe for the sythe and sickle; and soon the sultry noon-tide heat, the refreshing night dew and the lowering thunder-cloud, herald the advent of Autumn; it comes, laden with purple fruit and golden grain; it yields its bounteous store; it passes, and then sunshine is pale and languid, winds are bleak and cold, trees become leafless, streams are fast bound with ice, hoar-frost and snow form the winter mantle of the earth.

These Four Seasons, these miraculous changes in the aspect of the globe, these definite periods of Germination, of Growth, of Maturity, and of Repose, familiar to all men, yet unheeded by many, present the votary of chemistry with magnificent illustrations of facts regarding the powers and properties of matter, which he has discovered upon a minor scale by experiments in his laboratory.

To him, who comes with a mind duly prepared and fitted to the business of the interpretation of Nature, in accordance with the axioms of Inductive Philosophy,

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