Furthermore, Guaire's messenger, having thoroughly viewed Diarmuid's army, disparaged it to the king for the smallness of their numbers and the poorness of their appearance to which Diarmuid answered: "Knowest thou not that neither by numbers nor by brave apparel is a battle won, but by the will of God, and a truthful cause. And though thou sayest our host is mean to look upon it is not fair forms but hardy hearts that win a fight."

Joyce, P. W.: Social History of Ancient Ireland.

O'Curry, Eugene: Manuscript Materials of Irish History.

Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish.

Hyde, Douglas, LL.D.: A Literary History of Ireland, from the earliest times to the present day.

Keating's History of Ireland.

able to get the backing he wished, and consequently regretted he would have to give hostages and submit. Brian, however, instead of at once accepting, entreated Malachi to take a respite of one year to see if in that time he might not do better. In the meantime he himself would ask the submission of Aod O'Neill-and also of the King of Ulidia-"that I may learn what kind of answer they make to me; and then, should they give me battle, thou mayest help them against me if thou wilt." But Malachi refused, declaring that he would not fight against him after any such manner.

Let us imagine, if we can, some of our noble kings and generals in this twentieth century civilisation emulating in chivalry the old Irish "barbarians."

While considering signal virtues of men in those days, it is not inappropriate to set down here a sample of the chivalry and the great boldness of another king of Connaught, Ailill. Ailill was a wanton and a sinful king, who often and recklessly warred upon his enemies. But there came at length a battle in which he was overwhelmingly defeated. As he fled afar from the bloody field, he called upon his charioteer:

"Look behind and see whether the slaying is great, and are the slayers near us." The charioteer looked behind him, and what he said was: "The slaying with which your people are slain is unendurable."

"Not then their own guilt falls on them, but the guilt of my pride and untruthfulness," said the king. "Turn thou the chariot toward the enemy, for my slaying will be the saving of a multitude."

And he faced the pursuers and gave his life to stay the slaughter. And King Ailill, a monster of wickedness living, in dying won the peace of God.

CHAPTER XXXII

THE TRIBE

THERE were nearly two hundred tuaths or territories, in Ireland, each occupied by a tribe, under its chief who was oftentimes designated king of a tuath.

The subdivisions of a tuath were ballybetaighs of which there were usually thirty to each tuath. The ballybetaigh was again subdivided into twelve seasreachs, each of one ploughland or about one hundred and twenty acres. The ballybetaigh was supposed to be of extent to supply grazing for four herds of seventy-five cows each, "without one cow touching another."

In general, the whole of the lands of the territory belonged to all the tribe. But there was a limited circle, including the king, the nobles, and a few of the leading professional men, each of whom had private rights in a certain portion of the land-the right to use those lands for the benefit of himself and family, but not to transfer them to any person outside the tribe.

The foregoing refers only to special portions of the tribal land. The greater part of the tribal land was free for the use of all the people of the tribe.

These privileged ones who had exclusive rights to the use of certain lands, usually rented large portion in parcels to the céiles (tenants)—who formed the féine, or general body of the people.

The privileged person usually also rented to the céile cattle for stocking the land. The céile who owned his own stock, or who had to borrow but little, was of much higher standing than the céile who had to borrow or rent all his stock. The former was called a free céile, and the latter an unfree because he was bound to those above him by so many obligations.

The stock borrowed from a noble (or from a certain class between the noble and the céile called bo-aire, who had stock to rent) was returned, it or its equivalent, at the end of seven years.

Below the céiles-the féine, or general body of the people of the tribe were two classes usually rated as non-free. One of

them was the bothach and sencleithe, who were labourers, horseboys, herdsmen, and hangers-on, supported by particular families to which they were attached, and who were considered members of the tribe, but had neither property rights nor any voice in the tribal council. The other, the fuidir, were strangers, fugitives, war captives, condemned criminals or people who had to give up their freedom in order to work out a debt or fine that they could not pay. These latter, were not of the tribe, only belonged to it, and were serfs, pure and simple. Only, they had the right of renting a little land and gradually acquiring property-till, in the course of a certain number of years, having accumulated some substance, and having proved to the tribe that they were people of character, they could, by the general voice of the tribe, be received into the fold, and become of the féine. Of course the bothach and sencleithe were privileged to raise themselves even more easily than the fuidir. The very humblest might, by inherent worth, work his way up to be eventually among the noblest. So, the class system in Ireland was not a caste system.

It was only the fuidir, the mere flotsam and jetsam of the nation, who were in the state of semi-servitude. The feudal system, the system of the lord and the serf, which was the rule throughout almost all the countries of Europe then, was never known in Ireland at least not until the English, after they had established footing there, endeavoured to introduce from their own country a form of it. The system in Ireland was something more like the patriarchal system of the east. The tribe resolved itself into family groups called derb-fine1 centring around one leading family from whom the chief was always chosen.

The law of inheritance in ancient Ireland was not that of primogeniture, but of gavel-kind—that is, instead of the eldest son inheriting all the father's property, it was divided, cattle and land, among all the sons. But the eldest son got, with his share, the house and offices and household effects. Special responsibilities fell to him as guardian of his sisters, and of his brothers under age, and as the representative of the family in all cases of stress or need.

The laws protected every one, including the base fuidir. They were especially framed to protect the weak against the strong. "No person," says the law, "shall be oppressed in his difficulty.' And the law forbade the rent-payer to give service or rent to one

1 Four generations sprung from one man usually went to each derb-fine-so that in each succeeding generation the groups had to be re-arranged.

who would exact unjustly. The greedy oppressor had to repent and pay a fine before his céile should resume giving him either rent or service.

The céile contributed to the head of the tribe a certain amount of labour, a portion of the household needs, and a certain number of days military service, which was demanded when the need arose.

But the chief, or king of the territory-as well as the provincial king and the Ard-Righ-kept about him a number of paid permanent troops-his household troops composed of his own people, and a small standing army usually composed of mercenaries. And the strongest, most powerful man was chosen as the king's airechta, champion or avenger.

The king of the tuath paid tribute to the provincial king, who in turn paid tribute to the Ard-Righ. And on the other hand, each of the higher kings paid back to his tributary a small courtesy tribute called tuarastal. The Book of Rights specifies in full, and curious detail, the cis, or amounts of the tribute in cattle, in cloaks, in swords, etc., due from each inferior king to his superior-and likewise the tuarastal from the superior to his inferior.

The headship (whether chief or king) was hereditary only to the extent that the ruler was always chosen by the people, from within one family. From the righ-damna (king material) that is, the royal uncles, brothers, sons, nephews, grand-sons and grandnephews, the people chose whatever male member of the family would make the wisest, bravest, and best ruler. In later centuries, in order to avoid the evils of disputed succession, the king's successor was always chosen during the king's lifetime-and this king-elect was called tanaiste. He had to be without physical blemish or deformity. When elected he had to swear to observe the law, and to govern in accordance with the law and the ancient customs. At the inauguration the ollam, in presence of the people, read to him the laws that he must swear to observe, and the ancient customs that he must swear to maintain. And for non-observance of these, he was liable to be, at any time, deposed.

Same books as for preceding chapter, together with:

Sullivan, W. K., Ph.D.: Introduction to O'Curry's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish.

CHAPTER XXXIII

MANNER OF LIVING IN ANCIENT IRELAND

IN very early Ireland practically all residences were of wood or of wicker-work, and most of them were in circular form. They were usually thatched with straw, rushes, or sedge. Stone was very seldom used in building residences before the eighth century. The wooden and wicker-work houses were washed with lime on the outside-lime in its natural white state, or coloured with pigments. The older stories and poems show that houses of the better kind had windows that were shuttered. These early residences were seldom divided into apartments-though the stories show that compartments for sleepers were often made along the walls of a large building.

Linen sheets and ornamented coverlets were in use. Small low tables for serving meals were supplied with knives (no forks), with cups, jugs, drinking horns, methers, sometimes with goblets of glass (a precious rarity, however), goblets of silver, flagons of bronze or copper-and occasionally napkins. Cooks wore flat white caps and linen aprons. Wheat meal, oat-meal, eggs, meat, milk and honey, with some vegetables and a very few fruits, supplied the table. Light was furnished by candles of tallow or of beeswax, rushlights, spails of bog fir, and sometimes oil lamps. The lights were stuck on the walls, stood on the tables, were held by attendants, or hung from above.

The residence of one of the higher ranks was either on a lios (a raised mound of earth), or a rath (a lios protected by a surrounding wall, usually of earth), or, in case of a chief or king, a dun, which was a fortified rath having a couple of surrounding walls with a water-filled ditch between.

All of the better class houses had basins for bathing. And the select few had scented oils and fragrant herbs, as accompaniments of the bath. After their day's exertion, and before taking their evening meal, hunters and warriors treated themselves to a