NOTE 1.-The historical Present is followed by the Imperf. and Plupf. as well as by the Present and Perfect; as, Cæsar legatos mittit qui nuntiarent (or nuntient). Verres eos certiores facit quid opus esset (or sit). Argilius Pausaniæ aperit quid ex litteris comperisset (or compererit).

NOTE 2.-The ut consecutive after an historical tense, is often (especially in Nepos) followed by the Perfect Subj., instead of the Imperfect; as, Adeo excellebat Aristides abstinentia ut unus post hominum memoriam cognomine Justus sit appellatus. Factum est ut plus quam college Miltiades valuerit. Xerxes adeo angusto mari conflixit ut ejus multitudo navium explicuri non potuerit.

NOTE 3.-When a subordinate clause expresses a general truth-or a result which extends to the present time of the speaker, its verb is put in the Present (or Perfect), whatever may be the tense of the preceding verb. E. g., Trajanus rempublicam ita administravit ut omnibus principibus merito preferatur.1 Ardebat Hortensius cupiditate dicendi sic ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim. Atticus fecit ut vere dictum videatur: Sui cuique mores fingunt fortunam. Antiocho pacem petenti ad priores conditiones nihil additum, Africano prædicante neque Romanis si vincantur animos minui, neque si vincant, secundis rebus insolescere.

NOTE 4.-The Imperfect Subjunctive is sometimes used where we might expect the Present. This is the case (a) after the English Perfect with "have," when the action expressed by the Perfect can be conceived in its progress and duration; as, "I have for a long time doubted (conceived in its duration, I was doubting) if it would not be better;" Diu dubitavi an melius esset. Quoniam quæ subsidia haberes et habere posses, exposui, nunc de magnitudine petitionis dicam; (b) after Perfect Infinitives that depend on a preceding present or future tense, and are equivalent to the Perfect Indic. with "have;" as, "I think to have said enough (= that I have said enough) why this war is necessary ;" Satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor quare esset hoc bellum genere ipso necessarium, magnitudine periculosum. Præclare mihi videris posuisse ante oculos quid dicere oporteret eum qui orator esset futurus.—The Present Subj., in such instances, would indeed not be incorrect; but it would be contrary to the usage of the best writers.

III. MOODS OF VERBS.

INDICATIVE.

§ 189.-The INDICATIVE represents an action or state as something real and certain,- —as a fact; e. g., Deus est æternus. Virtus est sum

mum bonum.

1) The Present preferatur means that Trajan was preferred to all other rulers up to the time of the writer, whereas the Imperfect would mean that he was preferred only to his contemporaries. 2) Here the Imperfects vincerentur and vincerent would not be wrong, but the Presents vincantur and vincant more clearly show that equanimity was one of the leading features of the Roman character, not only on the present occasion, but at all times and under all circumstances.

The Indicative is sometimes used in Latin, where in English the potential mood is employed. This is the case:

1. With the expressions par, fas, æquum, justum, consentaneum, longum, immensum, infinitum, satius, æquius, melius, utilius, etc, est or erat,-when we wish to express that something would be (or have been) just, reasonable, easy, difficult, etc. The Imperfect of the English Potential is then generally rendered by the Present Indicative, and the English Pluperfect by the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative. E. g., "It would lead too far...." Longum est enumerare omnia prælia.-" There would be no end.... ;" Infinitum est ad omnia respondere.—“ How easy would it have been for me.......... Quam facile mihi erat, orbis imperium occupare Romanis militibus. Longe utilius fuit angustias aditus valido occupare præsidio. Erat infinitum bene de me meritos

omnes numerare.

2. With the verbs possum, licet, convenit, oportet, debeo, and necesse est, when it is intimated that something might, could, or should have taken place. The Imperfect Indic. of these verbs is used when we wish to express that something ought to have been done and that the time for doing it is not yet passed, that it may still be done: the Perfect Ind., when we wish to express, that something should have been done, but that the time for doing it is already passed. E. g., "You ought to have been put to death long ago;" Ad mortem te duci jam pridem oportebat. Contumeliis eum onerasti, quem patris loco colere debebas. Deleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugientes persecuti victores essent. Volumnia debuit in te officiosior esse, et id ipsum, quod fecit, potuit facere diligentius. Aut non suscipi bellum oportuit, aut geri pro dignitate Populi Romani. Thus in the Periphrastic conjugation: Quodsi Cn. Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen erat mittendus. Qui si hoc tempore non diem suum obiisset, paucis post annis tamen ei moriendum fuit.

3. In the conclusion of hypothetical sentences when we wish to express what would have happened, had not some obstacle intervened. E. g., Perieram (=periissem), nisi accurrisses. Labebar (= lapsus essem) longius, nisi me retinuisses. Mazœus si transeuntibus flumen Macedonibus supervenisset, haud dubie oppressurus fuit (= oppressisset) incompositos. Populus Romanus, Cæsare et Pompeio trucidatis, in statum pristina libertatis redierat, nisi aut Pompeius liberos, aut Cæsar hæredem reliquisset.

4. After relative pronouns and adverbs that are either doubled or have the suffix -cunque, as quisquis, quotquot, utut, ubiubi, quicunque, qualiscunque, quantuscunque, utcunque, and also after sive-sive. E. g., Quidquid id est ('whatever it may be') timeo Danaos et dona ferentes. Sapiens ubicunque est (wherever he may be') beatus est. Totum hoc leve est qualecunque est. Utcunque sese res habet, tua est culpa. Sive tacebis sive loquère, mihi perinde est. Sive verum id est sive falsum (be it true or false'), mihi quidem ita nuntiatum est.—☞ In these and similar instances, however, later writers frequently use the Indicative.

1) he would have been the person to be sent,

5. After the adverbs prope and pane, when we wish to express that an event was on the point of taking place; as, "I had almost forgotten.... ;" Prope` oblitus sum quod maxime scribendum erat. Brutum non minus amo quam tu: pæne dixi, quam te. Pons Sublicius iter pæne hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset.

NOTE.-The Present Indic. of possum stands frequently for possem; as, Possum persequi multa, sed ea ipsa quæ dixi, sentio fuisse longiora. Possum sexcenta decreta proferre. But also: Plurima quidem proferre possemus, sed modus adhibendus est.

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SUBJUNCTIVE.

§ 190.-The SUBJUNCTIVE represents a state or action-not as a fact, but as a mere conception of the mind, as something possible, conditional, or doubtful. The English language commonly expresses the nature of the Latin Subjunctive by the auxiliaries may, can, shall, might, could, should, and would. Thus, when I say, Frater tuus, etsi doctissimus sit (though he may be'), multa tamen se nescire fatebitur,—I represent your brother's being learned, not as a fact, but as a mere possibility: but, when I say, Frater tuus, etsi doctissimus est ('though he is'), multa tamen se nescire fatetur his being learned is represented as a fact-as a reality.

NOTE.-When the English may, can, might, could, etc., are not used as auxiliaries, but as principal verbs, they must be translated by licet, possum, volo, debeo, or oportet, respectively. E. g., "You may go,' Tibi abire licet.-" I might have gone," Mihi abire licuit." He could not have come sooner," Non potuit citius venire."You ought to have done that," Te oportuit hoc facere." It could not have been done better," Melius fieri non potuit.

The English Perfect Inf. after the forms might, could, and ought, is generally translated by the Present Infin., unless an action is to be represented as completed at or before some specified time; as, "At that time it ought to have been already done," Tum jam factum esse (te id fecisse) oportuit.

SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

Peream si mentior.

§ 191-The Subjunctive (especially the Subj. Present) is used in independent sentences, to express a modest assertion, a wish, a supposition, a concession, a deliberative question, an exhortation, an assurance or protest; as, "May I perish, if I lie."

Nemo sapiens illud tibi concedat. Feras putem2 quibus ex raptu alimenta sunt, meliores quo iracundiores; sed patientiam laudaverim

1) No wise man probably will concede. 2) I feel inclined to think-but I confess, I admire.

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boum et equorum.-Valeant cives mei, valeant, sint incolumes, sint flo rentes, sint beati, stet hæc urbs præclara.-Sed dicat1 nunc aliquis. Roges me quid sit Deus.-Dixerit Epicurus. Sit scelestus, sit fur; at est bonus imperator.—Quis non timeat omnia providentem et animadvertentem Deum? Valerius quotidie cantabat: erat enim scenicus; quid faceret aliud?-Imitemur nostros Brutos, Camillos, Curios, Fabricios; amemus patriam, pareamus senatui, consulamus bonis.

NOTE 1.-A modest assertion, or a deliberative question, is often expressed by the Subj. Perfect rather than the Present; as, "Who would grant you this?" "Who would doubt ?" แ By your leave I would say," etc., Quis tibi hoc concesserit? Quis dubitaverit? Pace or venia tua dixerim. Haud facile concesserim, dixerim, crediderim. Forsitan aliquis dixerit. Crediderit forte quispiam. Hoc sine ulla dubitatione confirmaverim. Voluptati qui se dederit, vix eum virum dixerim. Libenter his accesserim qui.... etc.

NOTE 2.-The English indefinite expressions "One (or, you) might have said, seen, thought," are generally rendered by the Imperfect Subj. diceres, videres, putares, etc.; as, Hostes latos modo, modo pavidos animadverteres. Pedites masti, crederes victos, in castra redeunt. Confecto prælio, tum vero cerneres, quanta audacia fuisset in exercitu Catilinæ.

NOTE 3.--A wish conceived as possible-which, we know, can or will be realized, is expressed by the Subj. Pres. or Perf.: but a wish conceived as impossible-which, we know, cannot or will not be realized, by the Subj. Imperf. or Pluperf.; e. g.,

Quam velim mihi ignoscat! Quam
Utinam hoc verum esset! Utinam

Nolim id factum esse.® Nollem id factum esse. vellem mihi ignosceret! Utinam hoc verum sit! saluti nostræ consulere possimus ! Vellem adesse posset Panatius! Utinam, Patres Conscripti, Calendis Sextilibus adesse potuissem!

§ 192.-In forms of protestation and swearing, the formula ita (sic) with the Subjunctive ("as true as") is followed by ut with the Indicative,

1) I suppose some one now to say. 2) Supposing you ask me. ) Granting that E. could have said. 4) what could (should) he have done else? 5) I feel inclined to accede readily. ") I could wish it not to have happened (I hope it has not happened). 7) I could wish it had not happened.

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when a simple assertion is made,-with the Subjunctive, when a wish is expressed. E. g., "As true as I live, I shudder...." Ita vivam ut toto corpore perhorresco. As true as I wish to be happy, there is nothing...." Ita sim felix, ut nihil est præclarius virtute.-" As true as I wish that God may help me, so truly do I wish you...." Ita me Deus adjuvet (or ita deos mihi velim propitios) ut diutissime vivas. "As true as I wish to see all my desires accomplished, I should like...." Tecum esse, ita mihi omnia quæ opto contingant, ut vehementer velim.

Sometimes ita with the Subjunctive is thrown in parenthetically without ut; as, Sæpe, ita me dii juvent, te auctorem consiliorum meorum desidero. Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua, mi Tiro, valetudo.

A negative protest is always,-a negative wish or concession generally, expressed by ne; as, Ne sim salvus (ne vivam), si aliter scribo ac sentio. Utinam ne (more rarely non) tibi in mentem venisset. Ne aquaveritis Hannibali Philippum, Pyrrho certe æquabitis.1

SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES.

Tacet quasi nesciat.

§ 193.-The Subjunctive is used after the particles O si (poet.), utinam, would that! ut, even if, although; ne, although not; quasi, tamquam, velut, ac si, velut si, tamquam si, perinde (æque, non secus) ac si, as if; licet, although; quamlibet, quantumvis, how much soever; modo, dummodo, if but, provided that; modo ne, dummodo ne, dumne, provided that not; and after nedum, much less, still less, when followed by a verb. E. g., "He is silent, as if he were ignorant.”

Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est. Quod turpe est, id quantumvis occultetur, tamen honestum nullo modo fieri potest. Quid ego his testibus utor, quasi res dubia aut obscura sit? Multi omnia recta et honesta negligunt, dummodo potentiam consequantur. Vix cum aspicit, nedum amet.

QUAMQUAM AND QUAMVIS.

194.-Quamquam, “although," ""however much," is in the Classical prose regularly construed with the Indicative,—and quamvis, "although," "however much," with the Subjunctive.

Poets and later prose writers, however, construe quamquam generally with the Subjunctive, and quamvis with the Indicative.-Quamquam with the Subj. occurs even in some passages of Cicero.

Quamvis, when taken adverbially, in the sense of "howsoever," has no influence upon the mood of the verb; as, "I shall be content with ever so small a corner of Italy," Quamvis parvis Italiæ latebris contentus ero.

Etsi, tametsi, and etiamsi, "although," take the Indic. when an action or a state is represented as a reality, as a fact, and the Subj., when it is repre sented as merely possible.

1) Granting that you cannot consider Ph. equal to II., yet you will surely....