Not presentuse in prove but in poltry:

Examples in point are: ere, anon, mount, vale, nigh, save (for "except "), betwixt, hight, scarce and exceeding (for "scarcely and "exceedingly "), erst, whilom, mine (as in "mine host"), ire, withal, hath, yclept, yore, quoth, kine, don, doff, nay and yea, whilst.

Byron can sing of "the Isles of Greece," but an historian would speak of "islands." Tennyson can say rampire and shoon where prose would write "rampart " and "shoes," just as he can call the sky "the breezy blue."1

So, too, words are obsolete for one kind of prose, but not for another. An historical novel, for example, may indulge in expressions, now obsolete, that are characteristic of the time in which the scene is laid; but care should be taken not to make such expressions so numerous as to render the work unintelligible to ordinary readers. All that can be done is to suggest antiquity. In Thackeray's "Henry Esmond," for example, 'tis for it is (a peculiarity of "The Spectator," but rare in modern prose) goes far to take the reader back to Queen Anne's time.

In all cases, "the question is not, whether a diction is antiquated for current speech, but whether it is antiquated for that particular purpose for which it is employed. A diction that is antiquated for common speech and common prose, may very well not be antiquated for poetry or certain special kinds of prose. Peradventure there shall be ten found there,' is not antiquated for Biblical prose, though for conversation or for a newspaper it is antiquated. The trumpet spake not to the armed throng' is not antiquated for poetry, although we should not write in a letter, he spake to me,' or say, 'the British soldier is arméd with the Enfield rifle.'"' 2

เ

6

These principles taken for granted, it follows that grammarians and lexicographers have no authority not derived from good use. Their business is to record in a

convenient form the decision of every case in which recent writers or speakers of national reputation are agreed; but they have no more tween law right to call in question such a decision than the compiler of a digest has to overrule a legislature or

a court.

Analogy beand language.

When, however, usage is divided, when each of two forms of expression is almost equally supported by authority, there is room for argument, as there is when legal precedents conflict. In the latter case, the question is looked at in the light of the general principles of law; in the former case, the question may be looked at in the light of the general principles of language : in both cases, a critic's conclusion is an expression of personal opinion, not an authoritative decision. It binds nobody, and it is frequently overruled.

CHAPTER II.

RULES IN CASES OF DIVIDED USAGE.

IN the determination of cases of divided usage, the best practical guides are some, though not all, of the canons framed by Dr. Campbell, and adopted, sometimes without due credit, by writers on Rhetoric since his day.

Canon I1 When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other is susceptible of but one signification, the latter being the form of expression which is perspicuity. in every instance univocal-should be preferred. The effect of following this canon is to give each word one distinct meaning.

The canon of

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By consequence or in consequence, in the sense of "consequently," is preferable to of consequence, since the latter also means "important;" admittance, as in "No admittance except on business," is preferable to admission, since the latter also means "" "confession or acknowledgment; "insurance to assurance policy, since “ assurance" also means "confidence." International Exhibition is preferable to International Exposition, since "exposition" has long been used in another meaning, as in "an exposition of doctrine;" choir, "singers," and sat, past of "to sit," forms universally used in the United States, are preferable to quire 2 and sate,2 these having other well-established meanings. Afterwards, as an adverb, is preferable to after, since the latter is also used as a preposition. Aught, in the sense of "any thing," is preferable to ought, the latter being a tense of the verb to owe; but nought ("nothing") is preferable to naught, the latter being an old form of naughty. Draft, in the sense of an order for money, a "sketch" (as for a speech), or

1 This and the following canons are taken in substance from Dr. Campbell's Rhetoric.

Scott, Macaulay, George Eliot.

اور کروں جو تر

Morde fouly

a "drawing of men" (as in war), is preferable to draught, the latter having several other meanings. Relative, in the sense of "member of a family," is preferable to relation. We should say I sprang and I shrank, rather than I sprung and I shrunk, since sprung and shrunk are also the participial forms; a thing hidden or forgotten, rather than hid or forgot, hid and forgot being the forms of the past indicative. A similar argument applies to gotten; but some prefer got, on the ground that gotten is harsh or affected.

A century ago there was a question between "I have eat" and "I have eaten," ," "I have wrote " and "I have written," "I have bore" and "I have borne; "1 but usage has determined in favor of the latter form in each pair. "I have drank” is still 2 found instead of “I have drunk;" but the great weight of authority, as well as the principle of this canon, favors the latter. "I 936 I drunk," sung,

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“I begun,” “ I have spoke," "I have beat," though often used colloquially for "I sang," "I drank," "I began," "I have spoken,"

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I have beaten," and sometimes to be found in good authors, hardly fall under this canon, so strongly does usage favor the second form. Under this head may be classed a few words that, though apparently meaning the exact opposite of each other, are sometimes used in the same sense. Thus unloose is found in the sense of "loose," 5 disannul in the sense of "annul," 6 unravel in the sense of "ravel," " embowel in the sense of "disembowel," 8 unrip in the sense of "rip."? In all these cases, the second word of each pair is preferable to the first.

Canon II. In doubtful cases, the analogy of the language should be regarded.

In the third person singular of the present tense of the verbs "to dare" and "to need," dare and need are some- The canon of times written instead of dares and needs. Under this analogy. canon, the latter form, which is that of almost all English verbs, is to be preferred. 10

On the principle of analogy, would rather and might better are

1 Lowth: Grammar. Campbell: Rhetoric.

2 Noah Webster: Dictionary.

4 Charles Reade.

6 G. Herbert.

8 Hallam.

10 See, however, p. 15.

8 Tennyson.

5 Shakspere.

7 Young.

9 Bacon. Jeremy Taylor.

preferable to had rather and had better. The latter forms have long been in use, and are still found in good authors as well as in good society; but they have no apparent advantage over the other forms, which are in at least equally good use, and are also in accordance with the analogy of the language.

Canon III. Other things being equal, the simpler and briefer form should be chosen.

"We say either accept or accept of, admit or admit of, approve or approve of; in like manner address or address to, attain or attain to. In such instances it will hold, I suppose, pretty generThe canon of brevity. ally, that the simple form is preferable. This appears particularly in the passive voice, in which every one must see the difference. 'His present was accepted of by his friend ' — ' His excuse was admitted of by his master' -The magistrates were addressed to by the townsmen,' are evidently much worse than 'His present was accepted by his friend'- • His excuse was admitted by his master'—'The magistrates were addressed by the townsmen.' We have but too many of this awkward, disjointed sort of compounds, and therefore ought not to multiply them without necessity."1

Some of the expressions quoted by Campbell are no longer met, but compounds as awkward and disjointed as any he condemns are daily multiplied without necessity. For instance, we examine into, open up, curb in, clamber up into, breed up, mix up, freshen up, fill up, brush off of, crave for, bridge over, follow after, treat upon, trace out, connect together, slur over, soften off, meet with, meet together, inspire into. In all such cases, the added particle, wherever it is not needed to complete the meaning, should be omitted, as being always superfluous and often worse than superfluous.

Under this canon, nowise, likewise, anywise, are preferable to in nowise, in likewise, in anywise. We still, however, have to say in this wise, in that wise, in such wise, no shorter forms being in good use. "House to let" is preferable to "house to be let;" whence, thence, and hence, to from whence, &c.

Canon IV. Of two forms of expression otherwise in equally good use, the one which is more agreeable to the ear should be chosen.

1 Campbell: Rhetoric, book ii. chap. ii.

2 A respectable English journal has learn up (1878).

3 See p. 115.