The population is almost exclusively of Germanic origin. A few hundred thousand inhabitants of the Fichtel mountains, who are of Slavic descent, have long since been fully Germanized; only in the Palatinate there are about 3,500 Frenchmen. Three original Germanic tribes constitute the population: the Boioarians or Bavarians, between the Allgau Alps and the so-called Franconian Jura, and the rivers Lech, Inn, and Salzach; the Franconians or Franks, between the Franconian Alps, the Thuringian and Bohemian mountains, and in the Palatinate; and a branch of the Swabians bordering on Würtemberg. The Franconians number about 2,500,000, the Swabians 500,000; the rest are Bavarians.-Bavaria is an elevated country, hilly rather than mountainous, on the borders of which are the Bavarian Alps, in the south; the Bohemian Forest, in the east; the Fichtelgebirge and the Franconian Forest, in the northeast; and the Rhön and Spessart, in the northwest. The Bavarian Forest, the Franconian Jura, and other minor ranges, traverse the interior, N. of the Danube. The Palatinate is traversed by the Hardt mountains, a branch of the Vosges. The highest point is the Zugspitz, about 10,000 ft., in the Bavarian Alps; in the Bohemian Forest, the highest points are the Arber, 4,800 ft., and Rachelberg, 4,750 ft.; in the Fichtelgebirge, the Schneeberg is 3,480 ft.; in the Rhön the highest point is about 3,000 ft.; Donnersberg, the culminating point of the Hardt mountains, is about 2,200 ft.-The rivers of the Palatinate belong to the basin of the Rhine; the principal ones are the Lauter, Queich, Blies, and Nahe. The rivers of Bavaria proper are the Main and Danube and their affluents. The principal tributaries of the Main are the Regnitz and Saale. The Danube flows for 270 m. through the centre of the kingdom, until at Passau it enters Austria, being navigable throughout this distance. It receives in Bavaria more than 30 considerable affluents, the chief of which are the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn from the right; from the left the Wörnitz, Altmühl, Kocher, Naab, Regen, and Ilz. Bavaria has several small lakes, the principal of which are the Chiem, Wurm, and Ammer, all situated at the foot of the Bavarian Alps. The circuit of none of these exceeds 40 m. A corner of the lake of Constance also belongs to Bavaria.-The climate is for the most part healthy, although the temperature is variable. It is colder in the winter and warmer in the summer than that of the neighboring countries. In the mountains there are heavy falls of snow, and the Alps, the Fichtelgebirge, and the Bohemian Forest are distinguished from the lower land by the length and severity of their winters. There are extensive forests, especially upon the hills and mountain sides. Great quantities of wood are obtained from these, and distributed through all the surrounding countries. About one third of the forest land is the property of the state; the

rest is in private hands. The soil is generally fertile, producing wheat, rye, oats, and barley; buckwheat, maize, and rice are also cultivated, and potatoes are an important crop. The hop thrives, and the vine flourishes in some parts, especially near Lake Constance and upon the lower course of the Main. Fruits, tobacco, hemp, flax, and licorice are cultivated. But upon the whole agriculture is in a backward condition. Cattle-raising is the most important industry on the slopes of the Alps; but, with the exception of sheep, little has been done to improve the breed of the domestic animals. The total area of the productive soil is 27,532 sq. m., of which 12,352 sq. m. are arable and garden land, 5,804 meadows and pastures, and 9,376 woodland. The latest agricultural statistics (1863) showed 368,528 horses, 3,185,882 horned cattle, 2,058,638 sheep, 926,522 swine, and 150,855 goats. The annual produce of wine is estimated at 16,218,000 gallons; that of raw tobacco at 114,676 cwt.— The mineral wealth of the country is very considerable. Coal and iron are found almost everywhere. In the Palatinate are mines of copper, manganese, mercury, cobalt, and plumbago. There are numerous choice varieties of marble, as also gypsum, alabaster, and some of the finest porcelain clay in Europe. Salt, which is a government monopoly, is produced by evaporation from the saline springs in the S. E. corner of the kingdom. Still the mineral wealth is to a great extent undeveloped. The production of salt in 1869 was 977,572 cwt.; of coal, 7,347,247 cwt.; and of iron in 1868, 961,382 tons. The most important article of industry is Bavarian beer, brewed to the highest perfection in Munich, Nuremberg, and Bamberg, and consumed in vast quantities in the country itself. The kingdom had in 1871 about 5,500 breweries, which brewed about 135,000,000 gallons. The mathematical and optical instruments manufactured at Munich are not surpassed by any in the world. Nuremberg is the great emporium for toys; Augsburg is noted for the production of gold, silver, and plated ware; the plumbago crucibles of Passau are exported to all parts of the world; and the ornamental glass of Bavaria rivals that of Bohemia. Coarse linen is the most important branch of textile manufactures, the production of cotton, woollen, and worsted goods not being equal to the home consumption. There are considerable manufactures of leather, straw goods, glass, nails, needles, and porcelain. The principal articles of export are timber, grain, wine, butter, cheese, and glass, the annual value being about $6,000,000. The principal imports are sugar, coffee, woollens, silks, cotton goods, drugs, hemp, and flax.-The central position of Bavaria gives it the transit trade between North Germany and Austria, Switzerland, and Italy. There are several canals, the principal of which, the Ludwig's canal, constructed by the government at a cost of $4,000,000, unites the Rhine and the Danube,

and through them the German ocean with the Black sea, and is one of the most important works of the kind in Europe. About the middle of 1871 Bavaria had 1,801 m. of railway in operation, a comparatively larger number than Prussia; 1,208 m. were state property or administered by the state, and 593 m. belonged to private companies. The aggregate length of telegraph lines in 1870 was 3,547 m., and that of telegraph wires 11,182 m.; the number of despatches was 858,705; the revenue derived from them, 447,690 fl., and the cost of administration 302,590 fl. The navigation on the Danube in 1871 employed 15 steamers and more than 2,000 sailing vessels, that on the Inn about 2,000 vessels, that on the Rhine 12 steamers and 236 sailing vessels. In 1869 Bavaria had 262 savings banks with an aggregate capital of 26,410,840 fl.; the number of depositors was 249,362. The direction of education is under the control of the minister of public instruction, with inspectors who report to him on the condition of the schools. All children whose parents have not received permission to have them educated at home must attend the public school until they are 14 years old, and must also attend Sunday school two years longer. Every parish has at least one elementary school; besides which there are lyceums and other schools of a higher grade, and trade schools, supported by the communes, in which are taught mathematics, mechanics, chemistry, drawing, architecture, and other branches. The course in these schools occupies three years, from the age of 12 to 15, after which the pupil may enter one of the three polytechnic schools, the course of which occupies three more years, with another year for engineers. There are three universities, of which Munich and Würzburg are Roman Catholic, the latter celebrated for its medical faculty, and Erlangen is Protestant. The university of Munich had in 1870, next to Berlin and Leipsic, the largest number of professors (118) and students (1,321) of any German university. Of other higher institutions of learning, Bavaria in 1870 had 8 lyceums (schools of theology and philosophy), 28 Gymnasien, 6 Real-Gymnasien, 84 Latin schools, 33 Gewerbschulen, 10 normal schools, and 1 Realschule. The number of elementary schools in 1866 was 8,197, with 604,916 pupils. The polytechnic school of Munich, which was reorganized in 1868, and which had in 1871, in five special departments, 47 professors and 805 students, is the first in all Germany as regards the number of students. At Munich an academy of painting, a school of sculpture, and an architectural academy owe their establishment to King Louis I. The number of newspapers in 1866 in Bavaria was 339, of which 99 were strictly devoted to politics. At the head of them stands the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung, which enjoys a world-wide reputation.-Rather more than seven tenths of the population are Roman Catholics, but religion is entirely free, Protestants and Catholics

having the same rights, and the sovereign may be either; civil rights have not, however, been extended to the Jews, or to one or two small Christian sects. The Catholics have 2 archbishoprics, Munich and Bamberg, 6 bishoprics, 171 deaneries, and 2,756 parishes, there being one clergyman to 464 souls. The Protestant church is under a general consistory and 4 provincial consistories; there are 920 parishes, and one clergyman to 1,013 souls.—Bavaria is a constitutional monarchy, the present constitution having been framed in 1818, but somewhat modified in 1848-'9. The crown is hereditary in the male line. The executive power is vested in the king, but is exercised through ministers who are responsible for all his acts. The diet consists of two houses. The Reichsrath or upper house is composed of the princes of the royal family, the crown dignitaries, the archbishops, and the heads of certain noble families; to these are added a Catholic bishop, the president of the Protestant consistory, and a number of other members appointed by the crown at pleasure; in 1871 it numbered 72. The lower house is composed of deputies from towns and universities and various religious corporations. The representation (154 members in 1871) is calculated at one deputy to 31,500 persons. The deputies are selected by electors who are chosen by popular vote. To be on the electoral lists, a person must be 25 years of age, and pay taxes to the amount of 10 florins. A deputy must be 30 years of age, and have an assured income from the funds, a trade, or a profession. According to the treaty of Versailles (Nov. 23, 1870), which regulated the entrance of Bavaria into the German empire, the Bavarian troops constitute two army corps of the German imperial army. In time of war the two Bavarian corps number 136,617 men. The military organization is in all essential points to be conformed to that of Prussia, but in the appointment of officers and the management of the army in time of peace greater rights have been accorded to the king of Bavaria than to any other German prince. The public debt amounted in 1870 to 343,000,000 fl. The towns, boroughs, and rural communities had in 1870 an aggregate debt of 27,269,235 fl. The budget of expenditures for each of the two years 1872 and 1873 was 58,629,558 fl.-The name Bayern is derived from the Boii, supposed by some to be of Celtic origin, who inhabited the country before the Christian era. Others, however, deny the Celtic origin, mainly on the ground that the Bavarian dialect bears no trace of it. Southern Bavaria formed a part of the Roman provinces of Rhætia, Vindelicia, and Noricum. After the fall of the Roman power the people were governed by their own dukes, from about 530 to 630, when the country became incorporated into the Frankish kingdom, and embraced Christianity. The Bavarians were still under the immediate government of their own dukes, several of whom revolted

clared war against Prussia in 1870, he counted | upon the aid or at least the neutrality of the southern states of Germany; but Bavaria speedily entered into a close alliance with North Germany, placing her whole military force at the disposal of the Prussian king, and the Bavarian corps bore a distinguished part in the whole campaign. King Louis took the initiative in the measures which led to the establishment of the German empire. Toward the close of the year he wrote to the king of Saxony and several other princes, urging the consolidation of Germany under the king of Prussia as emperor. In becoming a part of the empire, January, 1871, Bavaria reserved some special rights as to her domestic autonomy, the control of her army, and representation abroad. The opposition among the Catholic clergy to the decision of the ecumenical council found in 1870 its foremost exponent in Dr. Döllinger, now rector of the university of Munich, and Bavaria has since been the principal battle ground of Old Catholicism.

BAVAY, or Bavai, a town of France, in the department of Nord, 13 m. E. S. E. of Valenciennes; pop. in 1866, 1,646. The town occupies the site of the ancient Bagacum or Baganum, the capital of the Nervii before the conquest of Gaul by Cæsar, and an important military post under the Romans till the end of the 4th century. The remains of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and ruined fortifications are among its many remarkable relics of the past; and it is the point of union of seven still existing Roman roads, called the Chausées de Brunehaut. Its manufactures are glass, earthen and hardware, iron implements, and sugar.

BAWIAN (Malay, babi, hog; Javanese, bavi, hog's abode), an island about 50 m. N. of Java and Madura, in lat. 5° 49' S., lon. 112° 44' E.; area, 42 sq. m.; pop. about 35,000, or more than 800 to the sq. m. The soil is of volcanic formation, like that of Java, and equally productive, and yet the island imports annually from Java and Bali about 2,000 tons of rice for the consumption of the inhabitants, who are chiefly fishermen and traders. The inhabitants speak a Madura dialect, and are undoubtedly descendants of colonists from that island. They are a simple, industrious people, and crimes against person and property are rare. Their chief exports are small horses for Java, and tripang for China, for which they take in exchange tools, unwrought iron, and coarse domestic cloths. The wild hog is abundant, but not a single carnivorous animal is to be found except the tanggalung, a species of civet cat. Hot springs abound, and here grows the valuable teak tree. There is a roadstead in a small bay on its S. coast, near the town of Sangyapura (city of imagination).

BAWR, Alexandrine Sophie Coury de Champgrand, baroness de, a French dramatist and novelist, born in Stuttgart in 1773, died in Paris, Jan. 1, 1861. She received lessons in musical composition from Grétry. She married when still

young the count de St. Simon, the founder of the Saint Simonian school. Her husband, thinking her unfit to be the wife of the first man in the world, sued for a divorce, which was granted. Left to her own resources, Alexandrine composed songs (romances), and afterward wrote plays under the assumed name of M. François. In 1806 she married the wealthy baron de Bawr, with whom she lived for a few months in happy retirement; but a frightful accident carried him off suddenly; and a little later her fortune having been lost, she wrote some novels and plays which brought her both money and fame. Some of her plays are still occasionally performed, and her novels, Le novice, Raoul, ou l'Enéide, &c., were successful.

BAXTER, Andrew, a Scottish metaphysician and philosopher, born at Aberdeen in 1686 or 1687, died at Wittingham in 1750. He was a teacher of private pupils, gentlemen of rank, with whom he frequently travelled on the continent, spending some years in Utrecht. His greatest work is "An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul, wherein its Immateriality is evinced from the Principles of Reason and Philosophy" (4to, 1730; 3d and best ed., 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1745; appendix, 1750). In this treatise some opinions are advanced which were more thoroughly argued by Priestley. In a later work, entitled Matho, sive Cosmotheoria Puerilis (2 vols. 8vo and 12mo), he attempted to simplify questions of science, and adapt them to the capacity of children. He left behind him many unfinished treatises. As a student he was indefatigable, spending whole nights in literary toil.

BAXTER, Richard, an English nonconformist clergyman and theological writer, born at Rowton, Shropshire, Nov. 12, 1615, died in ⚫London, Dec. 8, 1691. His early bias was toward religious meditation and exercises of piety; and this bias was confirmed by his research in the library of Mr. Wickstead, chaplain of the Ludlow council. A brief trial of life at court confirmed him in his determination to become a preacher; and after a short interval of teaching, during which his preparatory studies were diligently prosecuted, he was ordained at Dudley, at the age of 23. Two years later he became the minister of the important town of Kidderminster, where he was held in high esteem, notwithstanding his refusal to take the ecclesiastical oath. In the civil wars which soon after broke out, he took sides with the parliament, was chaplain in Whalley's regiment, and led for some years an unsettled life. He had no sympathy with the assumption of supreme power by Cromwell, and advocated the return of Charles II. to his father's throne. In return for his services to the cause of legitimacy, he was made one of the chaplains of the restored monarch, and was offered a bishopric, which his conscientious scruples about conformity compelled him to decline. His favor with the king, however, could not shield him from persecution. He was prohibited from

preaching, accusations of heresy were multiplied against him, and after numerous arrests he was brought at last, at the age of 70, before the tribunal of Judge Jeffreys, on charges of sedition and hostility to the episcopacy, founded on passages in his "Paraphrase on the New Testament." In the trial Jeffreys was a prosecutor as well as judge, abusing the prisoner, insulting his counsel, and imposing a fine of 500 marks, the defendant to lie in prison till the fine was paid, and to be bound to good behavior for seven years. Unable to pay the fine, he was committed to the king's bench prison, where he was confined 18 months, when his fine was remitted, and he was pardoned through the mediation of Lord Powis. Baxter, though a royalist in his principles and the advocate of an established church, was yet in his tastes and temper sternly puritan. He was a foe to all dissoluteness of life, to all arbitrary measures, to every kind of tyranny and oppression. His opposition to absolute power was uncompromising, and neither fear nor favor could bring him to yield it. He was a mediator among the sects; yet his views were so sharp and positive that he became, in spite of his desire, the founder of a school of theology which still continues to bear his name. Baxter's love for theological subtleties, not less than his restless promptness in taking hold of every subject of religious concern, involved him in perpetual controversy. He had many and noble friends, but he made a multitude of enemies both in church and state. His works, in every form, from bulky folios to pamphlets, number not less than 168 titles. Most of them are written in English; yet the Methodus Theologia, issued in 1674, showed a fair mastery of the Latin tongue. His treatises on "Universal Concord" and "Catholic Theology" failed to produce that harmony among sects which was the purpose of their publication. Baxter was a fearless metaphysician; yet that he was credulous of strange tales, and ready to believe marvels, is shown in his treatise "Certainty of the World of Spirits." The three works by which Baxter is best known are his "Saint's Everlasting Rest," his "Call to the Unconverted," and his autobiography, published five years after his death ("Reliquia Baxteriana: A Narrative of his Life and Times," folio, 1696; edited by Dr. Calamy, 4 vols. 8vo, 1713). The first two of these works have a popularity which remains still undiminished. Doctrinally, these celebrated works are more liberal than his treatises of divinity. His works have been collected in 23 vols. 8vo, and his "Practical Works" in 4 vols., the latter many times reprinted.

BAXTER, William, an English philologist and archæologist, nephew of the preceding, born at Llanllugan, Montgomeryshire, in 1650, died in London, May 31, 1723. He had few advantages of instruction in his youth; and until the age of 18, when he entered the Harrow school, he knew not a single letter and no language

but his native Welsh. In a few years, however, he was noted for his accurate knowledge, not only of the ancient dialects of Britain, but of the Greek and Latin classics. While a schoolmaster in a private school at Tottenham, in Middlesex, and afterward in the Mercers' school in London, he published most of his works. These consist of a Latin grammar, (1679), two editions of Anacreon (1695 and 1710), two editions of Horace (1701 and 1725), and Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum (1719; new ed., 1733). After his death was published the letter A of a glossary of Roman antiquities, under the title of Reliquia Barterianæ, sive Guilielmi Baxteri Opera posthuma (8vo, London, 1726; new ed., Glossarium Antiquitatum Romanarum, 1731).

BAY, an E. central county of Michigan, on Saginaw bay, watered by Rifle river and numerous other streams; area, 750 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 15,900. The Flint and Père Marquette railroad extends to Bay City, in the S. E. part of the county, which is also traversed by the Jackson, Lansing, and Saginaw railroad. Lumber forms the principal industrial interest of the county. The chief productions in 1870 were 9,398 bushels of wheat, 1,799 of rye, 8,458 of Indian corn, 10,008 of oats, 26,505 of potatoes, and 3,538 tons of hay. There were 478 horses, 700 milch cows, 742 other cattle, and 453 swine. Capital, Bay City.

BAYADEER (Port. bailadeira, a dancing woman), a professional dancing and singing girl of India. The bayadeers, more commonly called nautchnees, or nautch girls, are recruited from almost every condition in life, but the better class are generally from the families of merchants and laborers. They are chosen for beauty, apprenticed to dhyas, themselves superannuated nautchnees, and subjected to a course of severe physical training, by which they acquire great suppleness and quickness of motion, and graceful carriage. They are also taught singing and various arts of adornment. The kite dance, in which the bayadeer assumes the various postures of one flying a kite, is among the most famous and popular of her performances. If, as is frequently the case, the nautchnee has been devoted to the service of the gods from her infancy, she enters a temple and becomes a devadasee or slave of the gods, taking rank according to the caste of her family, the importance of the divinity, and the endowment of the temple; here she assists at the formal services of the shrine, celebrates in songs, generally licentious, the deeds of the god or goddess, dances before the image, decks it with flowers, and attends it with dances and songs when it is carried abroad in procession. Devadasees are excluded from ceremonies of peculiar solemnity, such as funeral sacrifices and suttees. In order to be admitted to the sisterhood of devadasees the nautchnee must be under the marriageable age, and free from physical defect. If of a high caste, she is confined to the inner temple, and as long as