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final. Once afterward he was summoned to attend parliament; but he never recovered his standing, and he spent the remainder of his days in scientific studies, and among the few friends whom adversity had left him. His "History of Henry VII.," "Apophthegms," some works on natural history, and a new and enlarged edition of the "Essays" (1625), were all that he published after his fall. The imputations on his honor were doubtless exaggerated by the prejudices of the day, but his own confessions force us to believe that they were well founded, or else that he, in base subserviency to the court, subscribed himself a liar. Mr. Basil Montagu, in his life of Bacon, adopts the latter alternative, and argues against his corruption in favor of his weakness. The practice of receiving gifts was an habitual one; and Bacon probably spoke the truth when he averred that he had been the justest chancellor for many years. He died, saying in his will that "my name and memory I leave to foreign nations and to my own countrymen, after some time be passed over."-Lord Bacon had a capacity no less adapted to grapple with the principles of legal science than to illustrate other departments of knowledge. He lived, however, at a time when the English law consisted mostly of barren precedents, and judges were adverse to any reasoning that had not some analogy to cases already decided. The earliest of his writings on law, which he entitled "Elements of the Common Law of England," consisting of two treatises on "Maxims of the Law and the other Uses of the Law," appears to have been written in 1596. It was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, but he elicited no encouragement to proceed in the work. The "Maxims" exhibit the same nice discrimination of analogies that was afterward shown in his popular treatise on the "Colors of Good and Evil." Bacon says in the preface that he had collected 300 maxims, but that he thought best first to publish some few, that he might from other men's opinions either receive approbation in his course, or advice for the altering of those which remain. He received neither. The "Maxims" expounded were but 24 in number, and all the residue were by this cold reception lost to the world. Few cases are cited from the books, for which he gives the reason that it will appear to those who are learned in the laws that his instances "are mostly judged cases, or sustained by similitude of reason, but that in some cases he intended to weigh down authorities by evidence of reason, and therein rather to correct the law than either to soothe a received error, or by unprofitable subtlety, which corrupteth the sense of the law, to reconcile contrarieties." It is a common remark that he was not equal to some others, particularly Sir Edward Coke, in applying and reasoning from cases, but it is entirely untrue if by that be meant less discrimination of adjudged cases. On the contrary, no man excelled him in exact judgment of authorities;

but often he found these authorities unsupported by just principles, or so conflicting that the rule was to be sought from reasoning, independent of reported cases. Sixteen years later, when he had become attorney general, he again referred to this subject in "A Proposal for Amending the Laws of England," a tract addressed to King James, in which he speaks of the method of expounding the laws upon the plan which he had attempted in his early treatises, as certain to be productive of great advantage, and professes his willingness to resume his labors if desired by the king to do so. The king, however, did not accept the proposal. During the five years that he survived his impeachment and removal from office, Bacon again recurred to this favorite project, or rather he seems never to have laid it aside. A treatise on universal justice, consisting of 97 aphorisms, is contained in the De Augmentis, published during that period, which, he says, he wishes "to serve as a specimen of that digest which we propose and have in hand." The digest referred to is explained in an offer addressed to the king about that time. The plan he had in view was somewhat different from that which he had formerly proposed. It was to arrange into some order all the laws, whether statute or common law. The offer met with the same fate as the preceding one. Bacon says, in a letter to Bishop Andrews: "I had a purpose to make a particular digest or recompilement of the laws of mine own nation; yet because it is a work of assistance and that which I cannot master by my own forces and pen, I have laid it aside." Of his other law writings, the "Readings on the Statute of Uses" is the most elaborate. It has now no practical value, in consequence of the change in the laws wrought by time, but it is esteemed by those who have examined it critically a very profound treatise.-Bacon's life has been written by the Rev. William Rawley, who was his secretary and chaplain (London, 1658); by W. Dugdale, in the "Baconiana" of Thomas Tenison (1679); by Robert Stephens (1734); by David Mallet, at the head of an edition of his works (1740); by M. de Vauzelles (Paris, 1833); and by William Hepworth_Dixon, "Personal History of Lord Bacon" (London, 1859). The best and most complete edition of his works is that of Spedding, Ellis, and Heath (London, 1857). Basil Montagu's edition (1825 -'34) was the occasion of Macaulay's famous essay on Lord Bacon. Bacon, sa vie et son influence, by Rémusat (Paris, 1857), is a valuable work. An important monograph on Lord Bacon, entitled Franz Bacon von Verulam, by Kuno Fischer, was published in Leipsic in 1856.

BACON, John, an English sculptor, born at Southwark, Nov. 24, 1740, died Aug. 7, 1799. He was apprenticed at an early age to a porcelain manufacturer, in whose employment he learned the art of painting on china, and also of making ornamental figures in that material. At the age of 18 he sent a small

figure of Peace to the society for the encouragement of arts, and received a premium of ten guineas. On nine successive occasions he carried off similar prizes from the society. Bacon was employed at Lambeth to make statues of artificial stone, an art which he did much to develop and render popular. On the opening of the royal academy in 1768 he became one of its students, and the next year gained the first gold medal for sculpture. In 1770 he was chosen an associate of that body. His principal works were two busts of George III.; a monument to the founder of Guy's hospital, Southwark; a monument to Lord Chatham, in Guildhall; a monument to Lord Halifax, in Westminster abbey; the statue of Blackstone in All Souls college, Oxford; a statue of Henry VI. for the ante-chapel at Eton; a recumbent figure of the Thames, in the courtyard of Somerset House; the statues of Howard and Johnson in St. Paul's cathedral; and a second monument of Chatham in Westminster abbey.

BACON, Leonard, D. D., an American clergyman, born in Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 1802. He was educated at Yale college and at Andover theological seminary, and in March, 1825, became pastor of the first Congregational church in New Haven, Conn., which position he held till September, 1866, when he withdrew from active pastoral duty. From 1866 to 1871 he was acting professor of revealed theology in Yale college; and since 1871 has been lecturer | there on ecclesiastical polity and American church history. From about 1826 to 1838 he was one of the editors of the "Christian Spectator," a religious magazine published at New Haven. In 1843 he aided in establishing the "New Englander," a bi-monthly periodical, with which he is still associated. From 1848 to 1863 he was one of the editors of "The Independent" newspaper of New York. Among his works are: Life of Richard Baxter (1830); "Manual for Young Church Members " (1833); "Thirteen Historical Discourses, on the Completion of Two Hundred Years from the Beginning of the First Church in New Haven" (1839); Slavery Discussed in Occasional Essays from 1833 to 1838" (1846); "Christian Self-Culture" (1863); "Introductory Essay to Conybeare and Howson's "Life and Epistles of St. Paul" (1868); and many addresses before colleges which have been separately published. His sister DELIA, born in 1811, was eminent as a teacher, and author of "Tales of the Puritans" (1830), "The Bride of Fort Edward" (1839), and "The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays" (1857), in which she attempted to show that Francis Bacon was their author. She resided for some time in Stratford-onAvon, and died in Hartford in August, 1859.

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BACON, Nathaniel, commonly called the Virginia rebel, born in London about 1630, died in January, 1677. He emigrated to Virginia in 1675, during the administration of Sir William Berkeley. His abilities as a lawyer, his wealth and popular deportment, gave him

great influence. Almost immediately after his arrival he was chosen a member of the governor's council. At that time the colony was distracted by discontents. Gov. Berkeley was highly unpopular on account of his inefficiency in protecting the settlers from Indian ravages, his disposition to restrict the franchise, and the high rate of taxes. When the people took arms ostensibly to repel the savages, but in reality to force the authorities to do their duty, Bacon became the leader of the movement in July, 1676. Berkeley was compelled to make concessions, dismantle the forts, dissolve the old assembly, and issue writs for a new election. But he did not keep faith with the insurgents, and a desultory civil war broke out, in the course of which Jamestown, the capital of the colony, was burned to the ground. In the end the governor was obliged to seek shelter in some English vessels lying in James river, but before Bacon could complete his plans in respect to a new government he died of a disease contracted during one of his Indian campaigns. Soon after his death the rebellion itself was extinguished.

BACON, Sir Nicholas, an English statesman, lord keeper of the seal during the first 20 years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, born at Chiselhurst, Kent, in 1510, died Feb. 20, 1579. He studied at Corpus Christi, Cambridge, and afterward in Paris. Soon after his return to England he was called to the bar, and in 1537 was appointed solicitor to the court of augmentations. Nine years later Henry VIII. made him attorney to the court of wards, an office in which he continued during the reign of Edward VI. Being a Protestant, he was excluded from favor under Mary; but on the accession of Elizabeth (1558) he was chosen to her privy council, and soon afterward received the great seal, with the rank of lord chancellor. At the public conference held in Westminster abbey in March, 1559, to discuss the doctrines and ceremonies of the church of Rome, he presided. Being suspected in 1564 of having a hand in a book published by one Hales which questioned the title of Mary, queen of Scots, to succeed Elizabeth-a view of the case not then held by the court he was dismissed from the privy council, and from all participation in public affairs except in the court of chancery. Through the efforts of his brother-in-law Cecil he was afterward restored to favor. He was the father of Sir Francis Bacon.

BACON, Roger, an English Franciscan scholar, born near Ilchester, Somersetshire, in 1214, died at Oxford in 1292 or 1294. At an early age he was sent to Oxford, and thence he went to the university of Paris, then the most famous in Europe, where he took the degree of doctor of theology. About 1240 he returned to Oxford and entered a Franciscan monastery, where he studied Aristotle and all the ancient scholastic philosophy, mathematics, physics, and astronomy, and made many experiments with instruments constructed by himself. The igno

rance and jealousy of the other monks and of the clergy in general, and hostility created by Bacon's denunciation of their immorality, led to his being accused of studying and practising magic; and his lectures at Oxford were prohibited and the circulation of his writings confined to the convent. Robert Grosseteste, the bishop of Lincoln, befriended Bacon; and in 1265, when Clement IV., who had been a cardinal legate in England, was raised to the papacy, he despatched Raymond de Loudun to the. Franciscan monk to procure some of his writings. Bacon sent him the Opus Majus, together with two other supplementary works, the Opus Minus and the Opus Tertium. It is not known what reception Clement gave them, but he had scarcely got them in hand when he died, 1268. For ten years thereafter Bacon was allowed to prosecute his studies in peace; but in 1278 Jerome of Ascoli, superior of the Franciscan order, and afterward pope under the name of Nicholas IV., was appointed legate to the court of France, and was induced to summon Bacon to Paris, where a council of Franciscans condemned his writings and sentenced him to be confined to his cell. He was then in his 64th year, and ten years he passed in confinement. Finally his release was obtained through the influence of prominent persons in England, though some authorities state that he died in prison. Bayle and others reckon 101 of his treatises on various subjects. His chief printed works are: Perspectiva (Frankfort, 1614); Speculum Alchimia (Nuremberg, 1581); De Secretis Artis et Natura Operibus (Paris, 1542); De Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus (Oxford, 1590); and the Opus Majus, edited by Dr. Jebb (London, 1733), which contains a digest of his writings, and is the principal monument of his fame. Manuscripts of his works exist in the Cottonian, Harleian, Bodleian, and Trinity college libraries. A second manuscript of the Opus Tertium was found in the library at Douay by Victor Cousin, who gave an account of it, with an elaborate criticism of Bacon and his philosophical character in the Journal des savants for 1848. Roger Bacon claims for human reason the right to exercise control over all the doctrines submitted to its approbation; he insists upon the dignity and importance of all the sciences, and establishes experience rather than reasoning as the proper method of research. He fell into many errors on the subject of alchemy and astrology, but his scientifie genius was wonderful for his time. His writings anticipate (according to some authorities) the discovery of the telescope; he was acquainted with the composition of gunpowder; and the whole tone of his mind and scope of his thought were two or three centuries in advance of his generation.

BÁCS, or Bácska, a county in southern Hungary, surrounded on three sides by the Danube and Theiss area, 3,972 sq. m.; pop. in 1870. 576,149. The county is mostly level, and, with

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the exception of a few barren tracts, is noted for its great fertility and splendid pastures. It produces wheat of the best quality, wine, tobacco, and fine cattle and horses. The interior is traversed by the Francis canal, near which Zombor, the capital, is situated. Other important towns are Szabadka or MariaTheresiopel, on the railroad uniting Zombor with Szegedin, and Neusatz, on the Danube. The population consists chiefly of Magyars, Germans, and Rascians or Serbs. Shortly after the outbreak of the Hungarian revolution in 1848, the county became the principal seat of the Serb rising against the Magyars, and for more than a year witnessed all the horrors of a war of races. After the war it formed with the Banat the Serb waywodeship (Voivodina), but has since been restored to its former status. -Bács, a town in the S. W. part of the county, is situated on a small tributary of the Danube; pop. in 1870, 3,666.

BACSÁNYI, János, a Hungarian poet, born at Tapolcza, in the county of Zala, May 11, 1763, died in Linz, Upper Austria, May 12, 1845. His first work was A magyarok vitézsége ("The Valor of the Magyars," Pesth, 1785). He coöperated with Kazinczy in editing the Magyar Museum, and with him was implicated in the democratic conspiracy of the abbot Martinovich of 1794, and was sent to prison at the Spielberg, where he was confined about two years. Having marrried the German poetess Gabriele Baumberg and settled in Vienna, he was obliged to leave that city in 1809 for translating Napoleon's proclamation to the Hungarians, and took refuge in Paris. He was delivered up to the Austrian authorities after the peace of 1811, and kept under surveillance in Linz. He published his collected poems at Pesth in 1827 and at Buda in 1835.

BACTERIUM, a minute and exceedingly low vegetable form or monad, liable to appear in any fluid or solid substance containing vitalized matters. It is a mere point of organized matter, highly refractive, spherical in form, and moves with considerable activity. The first forms of living organisms, which M. Béchamp called microzymas, have been found in chalk, and are among the smallest living beings that can be seen. They are found also in concentrated alkaline solutions, in all the tissues of organic beings, in various morbid products, in the sugar-producing cells of the liver, in the blood of man and animals, in the liquids of the eggs, larvæ, and perfect form of insects, in the sap of plants, and very extensively, if not universally, in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. They act as powerful organic ferments, as vegetable cells, in the transformation of cane sugar and fecula into glucose. They are derived from the air, in which the germs are in suspension, and undergo various degrees of development before they begin to act as ferments. They undoubtedly play a very important part in both healthy and morbid processes; they assist in the ripening of fruits, in elabo,

rating certain matters for the nourishment of | germs, in the constant regeneration of animal and vegetable organs, and in the formation and action of cells. They may, according to Béchamp, develop themselves and grow equally well in an acid, alkaline, or neutral menstruum. The normal microzymas, or organic granules, or molecular granulations, as they are called, in plants and animals, may develop into bacteriums, and many forms of both may exist in the same plant. The inoculation of bacterium in a plant or animal causes their increased number, not by multiplication, but by so modifying the medium that the normal microzymas more readily develop themselves into bacterium. Many of the phenomena of spontaneous generation find their explanation in these all-pervading and minute organisms. According to Bastian, while some of these monads originate by subdivision of preexisting individuals (homogenesis), others originate de novo, just as crystals by certain chemical laws. He thus goes further than those advocates of spontaneous generation who believe that bacteriums originate by transformation of living matter (heterogenesis); for his mode of spontaneous generation he proposes the name of archebiosis. Torulæ are very similar bodies, and are the germs of the yeast of fungus. Some bacteriums also may develop into fungi. (See YEAST PLANT.)

BACTRIA, or Bactriana, an ancient country of Asia, bounded S. and S. E. by the Paropamisus (Hindoo Koosh) and N. by the Oxus, and corresponding to the modern territories of S. Bokhara, Balkh, and Khoondooz. It was inhabited by a warlike people, akin to the Medes and Persians, and generally regarded as belonging to the original stock of the Aryan or Indo-European races. Zend was the language of the country. Bactra, or Zariaspe, its capital, which occupied the site of the modern Balkh, was the headquarters of the Magi and a centre for the ancient Persian worship. Bactria was in very early times a powerful kingdom, but became a province of Persia about the time of Cyrus. It was conquered by Alexander, who left a colony of 14,000

Bactrian Gold Coin of King Agathocles, B. C. 262-256. (In the Cabinet of France.)

Greeks there, and after his death it formed a part of the dominions of the Seleucidæ. About 255 B. C. its governor, Diodotus or The

odotus, revolted, and it was an independent Greek kingdom, with some dependencies or affiliated realms toward India, from that time till about 126 B. C., when it was conquered by the Parthians. It was overrun by Genghis Khan and Tamerlane in the 13th and 14th centuries. A good deal of light was thrown upon the history of Bactria by the discovery in 1824 by Col. Tod of a large number of ancient coins in the topes or burial places of Afghanistan. The names of kings and inscriptions in Greek or Zend are found on these, which have been closely studied by Prinsep, H. H. Wilson, Lassen, and other scholars. They are in the London and Paris museums.

BACZKO, Ludwig von, a German author, born at Lyck, East Prussia, June 8, 1756, died in Königsberg, March 27, 1823. He became blind in his 21st year, from an attack of smallpox, and in 1816 was made superintendent of the blind asylum at Königsberg. Among his works are a history of Prussia in 6 volumes, and a history of the French revolution. wrote also several romances and dramas.

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BADAJOZ. I. A province of Spain, in Estremadura, bordering on Portugal; area, 8,687 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 480,049. It has a diversified surface, broken by several mountain ranges, is well wooded, and includes many alluvial lands of remarkable fertility, though agriculture is backward. The Guadiana traverses the province from E. to W. The climate is hot and unhealthy. There are mines of lead, copper, silver, and quicksilver, and one of gold. Linen, leather, and soap are the principal manufactures. Among the most noted towns, besides the capital, are Merida, Zafra, and the fortresses Albuquerque and Olivença, near the Portuguese frontier. II. A fortified town (anc. Pax Augusta, corrupted by the Moors to Paragousa, whence Badajoz), capital of the preceding province, and of Estremadura, on the left bank of the Guadiana, 5 m. from the frontier of Portugal, and 203 m. S. W. of Madrid; pop. in 1867, 22,895. It is built on a hill nearly 300 ft. high, crowned with the ruins of a Moorish castle. On the land side the city is protected by a wall flanked with bastions, around which are a moat and outworks, and on the heights beyond several forts. The river is here crossed by a magnificent stone bridge of 28 arches, originally built in the 15th century. There are many Moorish remains, including a mosque. cathedral was begun by Alfonso the Wise, and contains several paintings by Morales. There were formerly eight monasteries and convents, but the buildings are now occupied for other purposes. Badajoz has manufactories of soap and coarse cloth, and carries on an active trade with Portugal. The frontier position of the town and its strong defences have made it a conspicuous object of attack in the numerous wars in Spain. It was taken from the Moors by Alfonso IX., king of Leon, in 1230. It was besieged by the Portuguese

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without success in 1660, and again during the war of the succession in 1705. During the French invasion it was besieged by Kellermann and Victor in 1808 and 1809, and was surrendered to Marshal Soult March 11, 1811, by the treachery of Imaz, commander of the garrison. Beresford made an unsuccessful attempt to recover it, and it was afterward besieged by Wellington, and carried by assault with fearful loss on the night of April 6, 1812. The city was sacked for two days and nights by the British soldiers. Wellington's loss during the 20 days' siege was 5,000, of whom 3,500 fell in the final assault.

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The capital is Carlsruhe, which in 1871 had 36,622 inhabitants. The most important commercial city is Mannheim, with 39,614 inhabitants; and the most renowned cities are Heidelberg, the seat of a celebrated university, and Baden-Baden, the famous watering place.—On the western side of Baden, and stretching along the Rhine, is a fertile strip of land, from which the rest of the country rises toward the east. In the southern and eastern parts is the Schwarzwald (Black Forest), extending northward to the Enz, an affluent of the Neckar. North of the latter river is the Odenwald mountain range, connected by ranges of hills BADAKHSHAN, a mountainous country of with the Schwarzwald, but much less elevated. Central Asia, subject to the Uzbeck chief of The highest peaks of the Black Forest are the Koondooz, situated between lat. 36° and 38° Feldberg, 4,789 ft., and the Belchen, 4,490 ft. N., and lon. 69° and 73° E., bounded N. by The highest point of the Odenwald, the KatzKhokan, E. by the table land of Pamir, S. by enbuckel, is about 2,000 ft. high. Between the Chitral and Kafiristan, and W. by Koondooz; Rhine and the little river Dreisam is the Kaiarea estimated at 40,000 sq. m.; pop. about serstuhl, an independent volcanic group nearly 500,000. The country belongs to the basin of 10 m. in length and 5 in breadth; the highest the Oxus or Amoo Darya, and is very uneven, point of this group is 1,784 ft.-The principal with a gradual slope to the west. The principal river is the Rhine, which forms the boundary valleys are those of the Amoo and its tributary of the duchy on the south and west. the Koksha. The lower valleys and plains are other most important rivers are the Neckar, fertile, but the mountains are bare and sterile. Main, and Elz. The Danube rises in Baden, The highest central range is the Khoja Moham- on the extreme east of the Black Forest, under med, the peaks of which reach an altitude of the name of the Brege. Near Donaueschingen 7,000 ft. above the sea, or from 3,000 to 4,000 it unites with the Brigach, and with another above the surrounding plains. In the east and rivulet from the palace yard of Donaueschinsouth the mountains are higher and more rug- gen, when it takes the name of Danube. ged. They are composed largely of limestone, den has a number of small mountain lakes, the containing lapis lazuli. Rubies are found in Mummel, Titti, &c. A part of Lake Constance crystal deposits. The inhabitants are Tajiks, belongs to Baden,-In the plains and valleys the who speak the Persian language and belong climate is mild and agreeable, but in the higher to the Shiah sect of Mohammedans. Badakh- parts it is cold and moist, with snow during shan was a dependency of the Mogul empire, the greater part of the year, and with frequentand after its fall paid a doubtful allegiance to ly very sudden transitions from winter to sumCabool. In 1823 it was reduced by the Uz- mer. But on the whole the climate is very becks of Koondooz. Its ancient capital, Fyza- salubrious. In the valleys and plains the soil bad, and many other cities and towns were de- yields wheat, maize, barley, beans, potatoes, stroyed, and the former still lies in ruins. A flax, hemp, and tobacco; in the mountainous large part of the people were slaughtered or district, rye, wheat, and oats are cultivated. sold into slavery, and in many fertile districts The extensive vineyards produce excellent the population is still very thin. The present wines, and the finest fruits abound. The mancapital, Jerm, on the left bank of the Koksha, ufactures are chiefly confined to iron and hard105 m. E. of Koondooz, is made up of several ware, and the spinning and weaving of cotton. scattered hamlets, with about 1,500 inhabitants. The Black Forest is distinguished for manufacBADEN, a grand duchy of Germany, situated tures of wooden ornaments and toys, watches, between lat. 47° 30′ and 49° 50' N., and lon. wooden clocks, musical boxes, organs, and bas7° 30′ and 9° 50' E., bounded N. by Hesse- ket work. St. Blasien is an important seat Darmstadt and Bavaria, E. by Würtemberg of ribbon and cotton manufacture. The faband the Prussian province of Hohenzollern, S. rication of jewelry and of tobacco and cigars by Switzerland, and W. by Rhenish Bavaria and occupies the next rank in importance. The Alsace; area, 5,910 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 1,434,- chiccory, paper, and cloth manufactures, the 970, of whom 931,007 were set down as Catli- tanneries, and breweries are also noticeable. olics, 475,918 Protestants, 2,435 other Chris- There are extensive government salt works at tian sects, 25,599 Jews; pop. in 1871, 1,461,428. Dürrheim and Rappenau. The most excellent In 1816 the population was 1,005,899; it in- iron mines are those of Oberwert and Kancreased about 10,000 a year till 1846, after dern. Gold washing, formerly extensively carwhich, owing to emigration, there was a period ried on along the Rhine, is now little practised. of decrease till 1855, since which time there Baden has more than 60 mineral springs, the has been a gradual increase. The grand duchy most frequented of which are Baden-Baden, is divided into the administrative districts of Badenweiler, Antogast, Rippoltsau, and UeberConstance, Freiburg, Carlsruhe, and Mannheim.lingen. The exports are wine, timber, bread

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