between auroral action and disturbances of the | the electrical action is excited. It has been earth's magnetism appears to have been dem- held by some that the aurora is due to eleconstrated, though doubt still remains as to the trical discharges from the earth. Through exact nature of the association. The perturba- some cause the earth, regarded as a vast magtions of the magnetic needle undoubtedly attain net, becomes overcharged (according to this their maximum extent at intervals separated by theory) with electrical energy, and it is as this about 11 years. The researches of Sabine, La- energy is gradually dissipated that the splenmont, and Wolf appear to have established dors of the aurora are displayed. It has been that fact beyond dispute. Hence we may infer noticed that whenever the earth's magnetism that the auroral action waxes and wanes with- is unusually intense an auroral display is to be in the same period.-A remarkable associa- expected. As soon as the aurora las made its tion also appears to exist between disturbances appearance the intensity of the magnetic force of the earth's magnetism and the occurrence begins to diminish. The more brilliant the of spots on the sun. It has been demonstrated aurora, the more rapidly is the extra energy that the solar spots increase and diminish in of the earth's magnetism dissipated. "It has a period of about 11 years; and that this peri- also been observed by operators of the Bain odicity corresponds exactly with the periodicity or chemical telegraph, that very singular effects of the magnetic perturbations. A great solar are produced by the aurora upon the telegraph outburst witnessed by Carrington and Hodg- wires. The atmospheric electricity generated son, Sept. 29, 1859, was not only accompanied during thunderstorms passes from the wire to by extensive magnetic disturbances, but on the the chemically prepared paper, emitting a same day remarkable auroras occurred in both bright spark and a sound like the snapping of hemispheres. Telegraphic communication was a pistol. It never remains long upon the interrupted on all the principal lines; the ope- wires, though it travels sometimes 40 or 50 rators at Washington and Philadelphia received miles before discharging itself. But the elecsharp electric shocks; and the pen used in tricity produced by the aurora passes along the Bain's system of telegraphy was followed by a wires in a continuous stream with no sudden flame. Some doubt has been thrown on the discharge, effecting the same result as that by supposed connection between these circum- the galvanic battery. A colored mark upon stances and the solar outburst, in consequence the paper is made by the positive current of of the failure of observers to obtain any corrob- the aurora as by the positive pole of the batorative evidence during the past 13 years; but tery; the negative current, on the contrary, the connection between the condition of the so- produces a bleaching effect. Preceding the lar surface and the earth's magnetic state, and appearance of the aurora faint blue lines appear therefore the connection between the solar on the paper, which gradually become stronger spot period and auroral displays, has been thor- and darker so as to burn through several thickoughly established. The following table ex- nesses of it. The effect then disappears, and is hibits the number of auroras seen in each soon followed by the bleaching process, which month, in America and Europe, according to entirely overcomes the artificial current of the the observations of Prof. Loomis of Yale college batteries. When these effects have been oband Katz of Germany. These observations, served, the aurora follows, and presents some. however, must not be looked upon as indi- of its most beautiful displays along the lines eating the relative frequency of auroras in of these telegraphs; and so familiar have the America and Europe, because the observations operators become with the disturbance which of Loomis and Kämtz range over a different the aurora causes, that they can predict its apnumber of years: pearance with much certainty. They regard the electricity generated by it as precisely that of the electro-galvanic battery, which is distinguished by its voluminous current without intensity of action, differing from atmospheric electricity or the kind developed by friction, which may be dissipated by placing a wire In each case there is a double maximum, the conductor leading to the ground in close proxtwo equinoxes being the epochs at which auro-imity to the line of wires." Capt. McClintock ras are most frequent; and it is noteworthy that in these months the solar poles are most inclined toward the earth, the southern pole in March, the northern pole in September; so that the southern spot zone is nearer to the centre of the sun's face in March than at any other time, while the northern spot zone holds a corresponding position in September.-As to the electrical character of the phenomenon no question can be entertained, though there are few problems of greater difficulty than the determination of the exact manner in which January. March April May... June Loomis. Kämtz. Loomis Kämtz. 233 173 229 July 240 440 267 312 191 184 ....... 179 65 observed in the arctic regions that the aurora was never visible above ice fields, but that whenever an aurora was in progress the light appeared always to be gathered over the surface of the open water. Water being, as is well known, an excellent conductor of electricity, while ice is a non-conductor, we may infer that the peculiarity observed by McClintock was due to this difference in the conduct ing powers of ice and water. In fact, on the theory that the aurora is due to electrical discharges from the earth, these discharges were interrupted by the fields of ice.-The study of the aurora with the spectroscope has revealed some important facts, though it has as yet thrown no light on the nature of the phenomenon. Angström of Sweden, in the winter of 1867-'8, recognized the existence of a bright yellow-green line in the auroral spectrum; and Otto Struve of Russia presently confirmed this result. It was at the time supposed that this line constituted the whole of the spectrum; and Dr. Huggins, commenting on the discovery, remarked in 1868 that the result seemed surprising when the ordinarily ruddy hue of the aurora was taken into account. "But Gen. Sabine tells me," he adds, "that in his polar expeditions he has frequently seen the aurora tinged with green, and this appearance corresponds with the position of the line seen by M. Struve." Later observations, however, and especially those made by Prof. Winlock in this country, have shown that the auroral spectrum is far more complex than had been supposed, and that it is also variable. It would appear that the bright green line is always present, and that it is nearly always the brightest line of the spectrum. But there is also a band in the red which, though usually much less intense, yet becomes even brighter than the yellow-green line when the red streamers of the aurora are exceptionally brilliant. The wave lengths of the green and red light correspond respectively to 558 and 635. Besides these there are faint greenish and bluish lines corresponding to wave lengths 544, 531, 522, 518, 501, and 485. Two other bands in the blue and violet between the lines F and G (one of them very close to G) have been detected in the spectrum of white parts of the aurora. They disappear or become faint in the parts having an intense red tint. During the great auroral display of Feb. 4, 1872, Father Perry of the Stonyhurst observatory (England) remarked that "the green line could always be detected, even where the unassisted eye failed to notice any trace of auroral light. This," he adds, "might suggest the advisability of a daily observation with a small hand spectroscope for those who are desirous of forming a complete list of auroral phenomena. Magnetic disturbances are a sure guide in the case of grand manifestations of aurora; but might not a very slight aurora be observable without the magnetic needle being sensibly affected?" One of the most remarkable circumstances hitherto ascertained respecting the aurora is the partial agreement of its spectrum with that of the solar corona. It is not indeed the case, as is sometimes stated, that the principal line in the coronal spectrum (known as the 1474 line, because agreeing with the corresponding line of Kirchhoff's scale) coincides with the bright yellow-green auroral line; but another and fainter auroral line agrees with Kirchhoff's 1474, and there is sufficient general resemblance between the coronal and auroral spectra to justify the theory that a real resemblance exists between the aurora and the solar corona. This theory was first worked out and published by Prof. W. A. Norton of Yale college; but Prof. Winlock of Cainbridge also formed and published a similar theory.-Some doubt seems still to prevail on the question whether the bright green line of the auroral spectrum belongs also to the spectrum of the zodiacal light. Angström and Respighi have asserted that this is the case; but others deny that the auroral green line is ever seen in the zodiacal spectrum save when an aurora is in progress. Mr. Webb observes of the zodiacal light, Feb. 2, 1872: "It seemed to show a ruddy tinge not unlike the commencement of a crimson aurora borealis; this may have been a deception, but it was certainly redder or yellower than the galaxy. At 7 I examined it with a pocket spectroscope which shows very distinctly the greenish band of the aurora; but nothing of the kind was visible, nor could anything be traced beyond a slight increase of general light, which in closing the slit was extinguished long before the auroral band would have become imperceptible." M. Liais also, who has for several years studied the zodiacal light in tropical countries, finds its spectrum to be ordinarily continuous. Yet undoubtedly the yellow-green line is seen in the spectrum received from the region occupied by the zodiacal, during auroral displays; though whether it is then simply the auroral line seen in the direction of the zodiacal as well as in others, or partly received from the zodiacal itself, remains an open question. In the latter case it would follow, of course, that there is an intimate connection, as Mairan long ago suspected, between the zodiacal light, which is undoubtedly a cosmical phenomenon, and the aurora, which is as undoubtedly a terrestrial manifestation, though not improbably of cosmical origin. Prof. Olmsted had several years ago assigned to the aurora an interplanetary origin. "The nebulous matter," he reasoned, like that which furnishes the material of the meteoric showers or the zodiacal light, and is known to exist in the interplanetary spaces, is probably the cause of the auroral displays. The periodical return of the phenomena indicates such a position; so too its rapid motion, which exceeds that of light or electricity, and the extent of surface over which the phenomenon is seen at the same time." It should be added that during the months of January, February, and March, 1872, when auroras occurred with unusual frequency, the zodiacal light shone with exceptional brilliancy. 66 AURUNGABAD, a city of N. W. Hindostan, in the native state of Hyderabad or the territory of the Nizam, on the Doodna, a small tributary of the Godavery, 175 m. E. N. E. of Bombay. It was an unimportant village called Gurka until the time of Aurungzebe, who made it a favorite residence, and built here a mausoleum to the memory of his daugh ter. The town is well laid out, but the buildings are in a dilapidated condition, and the climate is unhealthy. The population was estimated in 1825 at 60,000, but is now much smaller. Water is supplied by means of conduits and pipes, and a considerable trade is Mosque of Aurungzebe. carried on. The town was formerly the capital of a province of the same name, containing about 50,000 sq. m., which was incorporated with the Mogul empire in 1633. In more recent periods it belonged partly to the Mahrattas and partly to the Nizam, but is now mostly under British rule. AURUNGZEBE, or Aurangzeb, the last great emperor of the Mogul dynasty in India, born Oct. 22, 1618, died at Ahmednuggur, Feb. 21, 1707. He was appointed by his father, Shah Jehan, to be viceroy of the Deccan. Here, while affecting an entire indifference for worldly things, he acquired military experience and amassed great wealth. In 1657 the emperor was taken suddenly ill, and Dara, the heir apparent and eldest brother of Aurungzebe, assumed the administration. Aurungzebe united with a younger brother in defeating Dara, and soon succeeded by his energy and treachery in putting to death all his brothers and their sons. His father, having meantime recovered, was confined for the rest of his life as a prisoner in his own palace, and Aurungzebe grasped the imperial power. His reign was the most brilliant period of the domination of the race of Akbar in India, and his empire included nearly all the peninsula of Hindostan, with Cabool on the west and Assam on the east. The first 10 years of his administration were marked by a profound peace, and his wisdom was especially signalized in the measures which he took in anticipating and assuaging a famine, and in suppressing an insurrection of Hindoo devotees headed by a female saint. A greater misfortune to him was the rise of the Mahratta em pire, the foundation of which had been almost imperceptibly laid by an adventurer named Sevajee. Against this leader Aurungzebe sent in vain his most experienced generals, and he therefore marched into the Deccan himself to superintend the war. He resided in the Dec 66 can 22 years, subduing the Carnatic and ruling an empire which in wealth and population was probably unsurpassed by that ever held by any other monarch. The proper name of Aurungzebe was Mohammed, and that by which he is commonly known, meaning the "ornament of the throne," was given him by his grandfather. He himself preferred the title of Alum-Geer, 'conquerer of the world," and he was accustomed to have carried before him a globe of gold as his symbol. Yet to show that he as yet held but three fourths of the earth, he used to tear off a corner from every sheet of paper which he used in his correspondence. India owes to him several of her finest bridges, hospitals, and mosques. In his personal habits he was remarkable for an ascetic simplicity; and in his zeal for the Mohammedan faith he became a persecutor of the Hindoos. AUSCHWITZ (Pol. Oswiecim), a town of western Galicia, in Austria, 32 m. W. of Cracow, and about 3 m. from the frontier of Prussian Silesia; pop. 3,600. It is the principal town of the former, originally Polish, then Silesian, and then again Polish, duchies of Auschwitz und Zator, with an area of about 1,000 sq. m., which in 1564 were united into one duchy by King Sigismund Augustus, and in 1773 incorporated with Austria. Although belonging to Galicia, the territory of the duchy was in 1818 declared by Austria to belong to the Germanic confederation. Only about one tenth of the population of the duchy speak German. In the war of 1866 there was an engagement at Auschwitz on June 27 between Prussian and Austrian troops. AUSCULTATION (Lat. auscultare, to listen), a branch of medical art by which the states and motions of internal organs are discerned through the sounds which they produce. Pulsations, respirations, and the vibratory movements in the body produce sounds which may be distinctly heard by placing the ear upon the walls of the chest, or other parts of the external frame. The heart beats strongly many times per minute, and each pulsation gives a shock to the surrounding parts, and also produces a double sound within the heart itself. At every breath the air is first drawn into the lungs, and again passes out by expiration. The passage of the air into the lungs produces one kind of sound peculiar to the act of inspiration, and its exit another peculiar to expiration. In a state of healthy action, the sounds of the heart and those of the lungs and air passages are of a peculiar nature, and a little practice enables the ear to become familiar with each special sound. In a diseased state, the action of both heart and lungs is modified to some extent, and the sounds produced are also modified in a peculiar manner. To assist the ear in distinguishing these sounds, Laennec constructed the stethoscope (Gr. orhoog, chest or breast, and σKOTεiv, to examine), by the aid of which all the sounds of the heart and lungs may be distinctly heard, and the differences between healthy and diseased action readily discerned and classified. The art of auscultation has since then made rapid progress.-Auscultation is very useful in obstetrics, as well as in diseases of the heart and lungs. In difficult cases of parturition, it is often necessary to know whether the child is dead or alive in the womb before delivery. After the fifth month of pregnancy the pulsations of the foetal heart may be distinctly heard, and the "placental murmur," caused by the uterine circulation of the blood, may also be distinguished by the ear.-Percussion is a branch of auscultation by which artificial sounds are obtained as a means of discerning the state of the parts from which these sounds proceed, particularly in regard to the presence or absence of air or liquids. The art of auscultation is of comparatively recent date, but it was long believed to be a useful aid in diagnosis. In the middle of the 17th century Hooke observed that "there may be a possibility of discovering the internal motions and actions of bodies by the sounds they make. . . . I have been able to hear very plainly the beating of a man's heart." In 1761 Leopold Auenbrugger, a German physician residing at Vienna, published a small volume in Latin explaining an artificial method of producing sounds in various regions of the body, by which the physician might judge of the state of the subjacent parts. This method was percussion. The book remained almost unknown till 1808, when Corvisart translated it into French, and made the method known to all the countries of Europe. The practice of percussion has since become general, and in many cases is found highly useful. The method of studying diseases from sounds made by percussion led to the method of observing sounds made naturally, by the action of the heart and lungs. Corvisart took up the subject with great zeal, and three of his disciples, Double, Bayle, and Laennec, continued the same course, resulting in the discovery of the stethoscope, and the general use of auscultation. AUSONES, the name of one of the most ancient tribes of Italy, whose origin is unknown. Tradition made them descendants of Auson, son of Ulysses and Calypso. They are held by Niebuhr to have been a portion of the great Oscan nation. From them the southern part of Italy, later known as Magna Græcia, was called Ausonia. AUSONIUS, Decimus Magnus, a Latin poet and grammarian, born at Burdigala (Bordeaux) about A. D. 310, died about 394. He practised law for a time in his native town, and afterward became a teacher of grammar and rhetoric. In 367 he was selected by the emperor Valentinian | to be tutor to his son Gratian, whom he accompanied into Germany the following year. He rose successively to the honorary titles and dignities of count of the empire, quæstor, governor of Gaul, Libya, and Latium, and lastly, in 379, of consul. His poetry is characterized by extreme licentiousness and pruriency, and is bald of invention and redundant in ornament. There has been much discussion whether Ausonius was a Christian or a pagan. The best editions of Ausonius are: a very rare one by Tollius (Amsterdam, 1671), with a commentary of Scaliger, and selected notes by various critics; the Delphin edition; and the Bipont of 1783, which is correct and of authority. AUSSIG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leitmeritz, at the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 44 m. (direct) N. N. W. of Prague, with which it is connected by railway; pop. in 1869, 10,933. It was formerly strongly fortified, but in 1426 it was destroyed by the Hussites, and in 1639 it was seized by the Swedish general Baner. It has a church said to have been built in 826, containing a Madonna by Carlo Dolce, presented to the town by the father of Raphael Mengs, who was born here. The town has an active trade in fruit, mineral waters, timber, and especially in coal. The battlefield of Kulm is in the vicinity. AUSTEN, Jane, an English novelist, born at Steventon, in Hampshire, Dec. 16, 1775, died in Winchester, July 18, 1817. She was educated by her father, who was rector of Steventon. It is not known at what time she commenced authorship. In her youth she was beautiful and graceful, but a disappointment in love determined her against marriage. "Northanger Abbey" (which was published with "Persuasion" after her death) was the earliest and weakest of her works, all of which, except the posthumous ones, appeared anonymously. "Sense and Sensibility" was published in 1811, and immediately obtained popularity. "Pride and Prejudice,' ""Mansfield Park," and "Emma" succeeded at regular intervals the last in 1816. Her father was compelled by ill health to pass his latter years in Bath, and on his death his widow and two daughters returned to Hampshire, and removed in May, 1817, to Winchester. Her novels have long been popular as "distinct delineations of English domestic life, with a delicate discrimination of female character." Her own opinion was that one of her novels was "a little bit of ivory two inches wide," on which she "worked with a brush so fine as to produce little effect after much labor." Her life has been written by J. E. Austen-Leigh (London, 1871). AUSTERLITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle and 12 m. E. of Brünn on the Littawa river; pop. about 2,400. It owes its celebrity to the battle won here by Napoleon over the united Austrian and Russian armies, Dec. 2, 1805. After the capture of the Austrian general Mack at Ulm, Oct. 17, and the occupation of Vienna by the French, Nov. 13, the Austrian and Russian forces were concentrated near Olmütz, and under command of the czar advanced upon Napoleon, whose forces were ranged in a semicircle having its centre near Brünn. The allies chose their position wrongly; and Napoleon, perceiving their error, ordered an instant attack, and routed them after a most severe contest. The allies lost about 30,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners. Austria was compelled to make the peace of Presburg; the emperor of Russia to return to his dominions; and the campaign ended leaving a large part of central Europe subject to Napoleon. The news of this disastrous battle is said to have hastened the death of William Pitt. AUSTIN, a S. E. county of Texas, intersected by Brazos river; area, 1,024 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 15,087, of whom 6,574 were colored. The Texas Central railroad passes through the county. Stock-raising is carried on to a large extent. Timber is abundant. In 1870 the county produced 444,544 bushels of Indian corn, 65,745 of sweet potatoes, 11,967 bales of cotton, and 19,362 lbs. of wool. There were 60,058 cattle, 5,768 horses, 7,554 sheep, and 15,657 hogs. Capital, Bellville. He was afterward state secretary and treasurer of Massachusetts. AUSTIN, Moses, an American pioneer, born in Durham, Conn., died June 10, 1821. He led an adventurous life, engaged in lead-mining in Virginia and Missouri, and in 1820 went to Bexar, Texas, where he obtained from the Mexican authorities permission to colonize 300 families in some part of Texas. He died soon after, and the plan was carried out by his son. (See AUSTIN, STEPHEN F.) AUSTIN, Samuel, D. D., an American clergyman, born at New Haven, Conn., Oct. 7, 1760, died at Glastenbury, Dec. 4, 1830. He graduated at Yale college in 1783, and, after studying divinity two years, was ordained as pastor of the church in Fairhaven, Conn. In 1790 he became the minister of the first Congregational society in Worcester, and in 1815 president of the university of Vermont. After holding that office for six years, he removed to Newport, R. I., and thence at the end of four years returned to Worcester. During the last three years of his life his reason was clouded. He left several controversial and other works. AUSTIN, Sarah, an English authoress, born in 1793, died at Weybridge, Aug. 8, 1867. She was one of the famous Taylor family of Norwich, and the wife of Mr. John Austin, a London barrister. Her reputation rests upon the unusual ability of her translations from German authors. Her first and most remarkable achievement in this kind was her version of the travels of Prince Pückler-Muskau, pubpub-lished under the title of "The Travels of a German Prince in England." The idiomatic painting and fluent ease of this translation were so admirable that for a long time it was difficult to persuade many persons that the work was not the composition of an English author. The first work which Mrs. Austin gave to the world under her own name was a translation of Falk's "Characteristics of Goethe" (1833), with many additions by herself. This book won an immediate and deserved success. She afterward published translations of Carové's "Story without an End," and Ranke's “ History of the Popes," a "Collection of Fragments from the German Prose Writers," an excellent treatise AUSTIN, a city of Texas, capital of the state and of Travis county, on the Colorado river, 160 m. (direct) from its mouth, and 200 m. N. | W. of Galveston; pop. in 1860, 3,494; in 1870, 4,428, of whom 1,615 were colored. The Colorado is navigable to this point in winter by steamboats. Austin is built on an amphitheatre of hills, and overlooks the valley of the Colorado and the rich prairies beyond. The lic buildings are of a white stone called marble, but too soft to admit of polish. An artesian well has been sunk just north of the capitol, to the depth of 1,300 feet, from which a small stream constantly issues. The water is impregnated with lime, and has some medicinal qualities. It has been proposed to supply the city with water from the Colorado by an aqueduct. There are 8 or 10 churches in the city, and about 20 schools. The first free public schools in Texas were opened at Austin in 1871. There are 2 weekly newspapers published here, 1 triweekly, and 3 daily. The western division of the Houston and Texas Central railroad connects the city by way of Hempstead with Houston and the diverging railroads. AUSTIN, Jonathan Loring, secretary and treasurer of Massachusetts, born in Boston, Jan. 2, 1748, died May 10, 1826. He graduated at Harvard college in 1766, was a merchant and secretary of the board of war in Massachusetts, and in 1777 was sent to Paris to the American commissioners with the news of Burgoyne's capture. Dr. Franklin made him an additional private secretary, and sent him as his agent to England, where he resided in the family of Lord Shelburne. On his return with despatches in May, 1779, he was liberally rewarded by congress. In 1780, in his passage to Spain as agent of the state, he was taken and carried to England, but soon liberated. VOL. II.-9 on Education," and "Sketches of Germany from 1760 to 1814." AUSTIN, Stephen F., founder of the first American colony in Texas, son of Moses Austin, died Dec. 27, 1836. Setting out from Natchitoches, July 5, 1821, to follow up the grant previously issued to his father authorizing the formation of a colony, he went to the city of Mexico, where it was specially confirmed Feb. 18, 1823. By it he was clothed with almost absolute power over the colonists, and only obliged to report to the captain general. The colony, since become Austin, the capital of Texas, of which he selected the site after a careful reconnoitring of the country, had been previously organized by him upon the basis of giving to each man 640 acres of land, 320 for a |