In 1847 he was appointed governor of Algeria in place of Marshal Bugeaud, and soon afterward received Abd-el-Kader's surrender. In 1848, on hearing of the revolution in Paris, he exhorted the population to wait calmly for further developments; and on March 3 he resigned and joined the other members of his family in England. On the outbreak of the FrancoGerman war in 1870 he offered his services to the government, but they were not accepted. After the downfall of Napoleon III. he returned to France, and in 1872 took his seat as a member of the national assembly. His eldest son, prince de Condé, died in Australia in 1866, aged 21, and his wife, a Neapolitan princess, in 1869. His only remaining child, the duke de Guise, born Jan. 5, 1854, died in Paris, July 25, 1872. He inherited a large fortune from the Condé family. In 1872 he was elected a member of the French academy. Besides pamphlets and articles on political and military matters, he is the author of Histoire des princes de Condé (2 vols., Paris, 1869), translated into English by the Rev. R. Brown-Borthwick (2 vols., London, 1872).

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manu ad ferrum (Aurelian Sword-in-Hand). He distinguished himself under Valerian and Claudius II. in campaigns against the Goths; and when Claudius died, although his brother Quintillius assumed the purple as his heir, Aurelian was proclaimed emperor by the army of the Danube, of which he was then in command (270). Quintillius committed suicide after a nominal reign of several weeks, and Aurelian took the throne without opposition. He drove the Goths beyond the Danube, carried on successful campaigns against the Alemanni and other German tribes, and to protect Rome against them built a line of strong walls, the ruins of which may still be traced about the city. He next undertook a war against Palmyra, then a magnificent city in the height of its prosperity, ruled by Zenobia, the widow of King Odenathus. He captured the city after one of the ablest defences in history, treated the people with comparative kindness, and refused to put Zenobia to death, though his troops demanded her execution. After his departure the Palmyrenes rose and massacred the Roman garrison; upon this he returned, destroyed the city, and put the people to the sword (273). Zenobia was carried to Rome, and appeared in the emperor's triumph. Aureliam next defeated an attempt at rebellion made by the Egyptians under their Roman governor. Tetricus, who had made himself the independent ruler of the greater part of Gaul, now surrendered after little more than the threat of a war; and the Roman empire resumed something of its old territorial im

AUNGERVYLE, Richard (known in history as Richard de Bury), an English statesman and bibliographer, born near Bury St. Edmunds in 1287, died at Bishop's Auckland, April 24, 1345. He was educated at Oxford, appointed tutor of the prince of Wales, and after the accession of his pupil to the throne as Edward III. received successively the appointments of coiffeur to the king, treasurer of the wardrobe, and keeper of the privy seal. In 1333 he was consecrated bishop of Durham. In 1334 he suc-portance. The senate bestowed upon Aurelian ceeded Archbishop Stratford as lord high chancellor of England, which office he resigned in 1335 for that of treasurer. He went several times abroad as ambassador, once to Rome and thrice to Paris. Aungervyle was a diligent purchaser of rare and costly books, and when bishop of Durham his collection was one of the largest in England. He founded also for the use of the students at Oxford a library, which was then the best in the kingdom. The latter part of his life he gave up entirely to books. He left a Latin treatise on bibliography (the earliest by any English writer), entitled Philobiblon (Cologne, 1473; English translation by J. B. Inglis, London, 1832); Epistolæ Familiarium, including some letters to his friend Petrarch; and Orationes ad Principes.

AURELIAN (LUCIUS DOMITIUS AURELIANUS), a Roman emperor, born in Pannonia, or according to some authorities on the southern confines of Dacia, in the early part of the 3d century, assassinated between Heraclea and Byzantium, A. D. 275. His parents were poor and of the lowest class. He entered a Roman legion at an early age, and by his bravery and the remarkable feats of arms which his almost gigantic stature and great strength enabled him to perform he secured rapid promotion, and great personal popularity with the soldiers, among whom he was designated as Aurelianus

the title of "restorer of the empire." After effecting many improvements in the government of the city, the discipline of the army, and the condition of the people, the emperor was murdered while on the way to a campaign against the Persians, by his secretary, whom he had offended by some harsh treatment long before. AURELIUS, Marcus. See ANTONINUS.

AURELLE (or D'AURELLE) DE PALADINES, a French soldier, born in 1803. He distinguished himself in the Crimean war. Before the outbreak of the war with Germany in 1870 he was commander of the 5th military division of France, at Metz. After the fall of the empire he was charged by the provisional government at Tours with the formation of the army of the Loire. After a battle near Coulmiers, he drove Gen. von der Tann from Orleans (Nov. 9-10), winning the first French victory over the Germans. For this he was appointed (Nov. 15) commander-in-chief of the army of the Loire. On Nov. 28 he attacked the left wing of Prince Frederick Charles at Beaune-la-Rolande, but encountered a severe repulse. On Dec. 2 he was beaten by the grand duke of Mecklenburg at Artenay, and on Dec. 3 Frederick Charles drove him back to the forest of Orleans, renewing the attack the next day and taking possession of the town at inidnight, after brisk fighting.

On the same day the French had been thor- other oriental languages. After 1754 he reoughly routed by another detachment of Fred- sided at Upsal, at first giving private instrucerick Charles's army near Chevilly and Chil- tion in the poetry of different nations, and in leurs, and driven either across or along the 1772 was appointed professor of oriental lanLoire above Orleans, thus splitting the army guages in the university. He succeeded Linof the Loire into two portions. D'Aurelle næus as member of the academy of sciences in was removed from his command. He refused Upsal, and was an active member of the comthe command of the camp of Cherbourg, as mission for preparing a new translation of the well as the appointment of successor to Gen. Bible into Swedish. Chanzy. As member of the national assembly at Bordeaux he opposed the continuation of the war, and was one of the committee of fifteen appointed to assist Thiers and Favre in arranging the preliminaries of the treaty of peace. He became commander-in-chief of the national guard of the department of the Seine, and in 1872 a member of the court martial for the trial of Marshal Bazaine.

AURICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, capital of an administrative division of the same name, and formerly capital of the principality of East Friesland, 60 m. N. W. of Bremen; pop. in 1871, 4,261. It has a castle which was formerly the residence of the prince of East Friesland, a college (gymnasium), and a normal school.

AURIFABER, the Latinized name of JOHANN GOLDSCHMIED, or GOLDSCHMIDT, one of the companions of Luther, born near Mansfeld in 1519, died at Erfurt in 1579. He studied at Wittenberg, and became Luther's amanuensis in 1545. In the Smalcaldic war he was chaplain to a Saxon regiment, and in 1551 court chaplain of the elector of Saxony, but he became involved in theological disputes and was removed in 1562. He collected the unpublished manuscripts of Luther, and was one of the collaborators of the Jena edition of the reformer's works. He edited the Epistola Lutheri and the "Table Talk." In 1566 he became pastor at Erfurt.

AURILLAC, a town of southern France, capital of the department of Cantal, in a valley on the Jourdanne, here spanned by a fine bridge, about 60 m. S. by W. of Clermont; pop. in 1866, 10,998. It is well built, with wide streets, kept clean by the overflowing of a large reservoir, into which two fountains discharge. The old buildings include the castle of St. Stephen, the church of St. Géraud, the church of Notre Dame of the 13th century, and the college, which contains a valuable library and a cabinet of mineralogy. The manufactures are copper utensils, jewelry, woollen stuffs, blondes, laces, and paper.-Aurillac was founded in the 9th century. The wall formerly surrounding it has been destroyed. The town suffered much in the wars of the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.

AURIOL, a French borough in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, 16 m. N. E. of Marseilles; pop. in 1866, 5,182. It has manufactories of flags, and near it are coal mines.

AURIVILLIUS, Karl, a Swedish orientalist, born at Stockholm in 1717, died in 1786. He mastered the Syriac, Arabic, Sanskrit, and

AUROCHS, the bos bison of Europe, one of the contemporaries of the mammoth (elephas primigenius), an animal of the ox family, once abundant, but now existing only in the forests of Lithuania belonging to the czar of Russia, and possibly in the Caucasus. It would long ago have become extinct but for the protection of man. The ure-ox (B. urus or B. primigenius), found in the post-tertiary deposits, is

believed to be the same as was described by Cæsar in his Commentaries as abounding in the forests of Gaul; it existed in Switzerland as late as the 16th century. Both species are found abundantly in the post-tertiary of Europe, and corresponding species in America, and no doubt furnished a large share of the food of prehistoric man.

AURORA (in Greek, Eos), the goddess of the morning, was the daughter of Hyperion and Thia, the wife of Astræus, and the mother of the winds. She carried off Orion to the island of Ortygia, and detained him there till he was slain by Diana. She bore away Cephalus, and had by him a son named Phaethon. To Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of Troy, she bore Memnon and Emathion. Aurora is sometimes represented in a saffron-colored robe, with a wand or torch in her right hand, emerging from a golden palace, and ascending her chariot; sometimes in a flowing veil, which she is in the act of throwing back, opening the gates of morning; and sometimes as a nymph, wearing a garland and standing in a chariot drawn by winged horses, with a torch in one hand and flowers in the other, which she scatters as she goes.

AURORA, a city of Kane county, Ill., on Fox river and the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy railroad, 40 m. W. by S. of Chicago; pop. in 1860, 6,011; in 1870, 11,162. It contains 14 churches, a handsome city hall, a college, and many important manufactories, the power for which is furnished by the Fox river. The construction and repair shops of the railway situated here employ about 700 men. A semiweekly newspaper, and 3 weeklies, one of which is German, are published here.

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ashen color; these disappear while the traces of the dark segment whence the phenomenon originated remain still on the horizon." Although auroras are more commonly seen in high latitudes than near the tropics, it is not toward the true poles of the earth that the increase takes place, nor does the increase continue after certain high latitudes have been reached. Thus the frequency of auroras is different at different stations in the same latitude; and in passing poleward from places in a given latitude, the region of maximum frequency is reached more quickly in some longitudes than in others. Thus an inhabitant of St. Petersburg would have to travel to lat. 71° N. before reaching the place of greatest auroral activity; while an inhabitant of Washington need travel northward only to lat. 56° to reach the region where auroral displays are most frequent. The zone on the earth's northern hemisphere where auroras occur most commonly and attain their greatest splendor, may be represented by constructing a ring of card or paper, of such diphe-mensions as to agree with the 60th parallel of north latitude, and then pushing the ring southward on the side of America and northward on the side of Asia, until it passes through the most southerly part of Hudson bay and the most northerly part of Siberia. The position of the corresponding zone in the southern hemisphere has not yet been determined; but it is believed that the southern zone of maximum auroral frequency is nearly antipodal to the northern zone. From what we know of the connection between the occurrence of auroras and disturbances of the earth's magnetism, we have every reason to believe that as the magnetic poles of the earth are slowly shifting, so the zone of maximum auroral frequency must also change in position. It cannot be doubted, for example, that in the 17th century, when the northern magnetic pole lay between England and the north pole, terrestrial conditions were more favorable for the occurrence of auroras in England than they now are, or than they then were in corresponding latitudes in North America. At present, on the contrary, the northern magnetic pole lies between the north pole and the northwestern extremity of the American continent; hence auroras are more frequent and more brilliant in North America than in corresponding latitudes in Europe. To the description given by Humboldt we should add that sometimes in high latitudes, instead of extending from the horizon, the auroral arch appears in the form of a complete oval. Hansteen relates that at Christiania he twice saw the auroral arch in this form. Sometimes more than one arch has been seen. Thus the observers who were sent by the French government to winter at Bossekop in Finland, saw on one occasion no fewer than nine arches, separated by dark spaces, "and resembling in their arrangement magnificent curtains of light, hung behind and below each other, their brilliant folds stretching com

AURORA BOREALIS (more correctly Aurora Polaris, since the phenomenon is not confined to northern latitudes), called also NORTHERN STREAMERS and Northern LIGHTS, a luminous appearance, associated with energetic disturbances of the earth's magnetism and electrical condition. It is seldom seen save in high latitudes, though occasionally the tropics are visited by auroral displays. In polar regions auroras are very common, and usually far more brilliant than in the temperate zones. Humboldt gives the following description of the appearances presented when the auroral nomena are fully developed, although it must be understood that there is considerable variety in these displays: "An aurora borealis is always preceded by the formation of a sort of nebular veil which slowly ascends to a height of four, six, eight, or even to ten degrees. It is toward the magnetic meridian of the place that the sky, at first pure, commences to become brownish. Through this obscure segment, the color of which passes from brown to violet, the stars are seen as through a thick fog. A wider arc, but one of brilliant light, at first white, then yellow, bounds the dark segment. Sometimes the luminous arc appears agitated for entire hours by a sort of effervescence and by a continual change of form, before the rising of the rays and columns of light, which ascend as far as the zenith. The more intense is the emission of the polar light, the more vivid are its colors, which from violet and bluish white pass through all the intermediate shades to green and purple red. Sometimes the columns of light appear to come out of the brilliant arc mingled with blackish rays similar to a thick smoke. Sometimes they rise simultaneously in different parts of the horizon; they unite themselves into a sea of flames, the magnificence of which no painting could express, and at each instant rapid undulations cause their form and brilliancy to vary. Motion appears to increase the visibility of the phenomenon. Around the point in the heavens which corresponds to the direction of the dipping needle produced, the rays appear to assemble together and form a boreal corona. It is rare that the appearance is so complete and is prolonged to the formation of the corona; but when the latter appears, it always announces the end of the phenomenon. The rays then become more rare, shorter, and less vividly colored. Shortly nothing more is seen on the celestial vault than wide, motionless nebulous spots, pale or of an

pletely across the sky." The position of the 4, 1872, estimates the height of the auroral luminous region is not known. Arago was of corona on that occasion at 265 miles above the opinion that each observer sees his own aurora, sea level. Prof. Olmsted's conclusion that the somewhat as each observer of a rainbow sees auroral arch is seldom below 70 miles in height the luminous arc differently placed. Sir John or above 160 miles, would thus appear to be Herschel says "no one can doubt that the light negatived. But probably all such estimates of the aurora originates nowhere but in the must be abandoned, and "our meteorological place where it is seen." But it has been con- catalogues," as Arago advised, "must be disensidered that the most favorable conditions for cumbered of a multitude of determinations of the determination of the height of auroral height, though due to such great names as Maigleams are presented when the auroral corona ran, Halley, Krafft, Cavendish, and Dalton."is formed. Now this corona always surrounds The extent of the earth's surface over which the point toward which the magnetic dip- the same aurora has been visible has someping needle points. Yet the magnetic dipping times been remarkable. Kämtz mentions that needles at different stations are not directed on Jan. 5, 1769, a splendid aurora was seen toward one and the same point; so that what- simultaneously in France and in Pennsylvania; ever the auroral corona may be, it does not and that the remarkable aurora of Jan. 7, 1831, seem to hold a definite place, in such sort that was seen from all parts of central and northern its distance can be determined by simultaneous Europe, in Canada, and in the northern parts observations; for it is the essential principle of of the United States. But even these instances, the method of simultaneous observations that and others of the same kind which might be the lines of sight should be directed to one and cited, are surpassed in interest by the circumthe same point. Nor is it easy, on Herschel's stance that auroras of great brilliancy occur theory, to interpret the fact that the auroral simultaneously over the major part of both the corona has been seen at stations distant more northern and southern hemispheres. Kämtz than 1,000 miles from each other, and always mentions that when Capt. Cook's observations around the part of the heavens pointed to by are analyzed, it appears that on every occasion the magnetic dipping needle. For a point im- when he observed an aurora australis an aurora mediately overhead at one station, and 100 borealis had been seen in Europe, or else the miles from the earth's surface, would be be- agitation of the magnetic needle proved that low the horizon of a station 1,000 miles dis- around the northern magnetic pole an auroral tant. We seem forced to adopt the conclusion display must have been in progress. The that though there is no analogy whatever be- aurora of Feb. 4, 1872, was seen not only in tween the aurora and the rainbow, yet Arago America and Europe, and over the northern was right when he asserted his belief that as hemisphere generally, as far S. as lat. 14° N., each observer sees his own rainbow, so each but in Mauritius, in South Africa, in Australia, observer sees a different aurora. We should and probably over the greater part of the souththus be led to consider whether the nature of ern hemisphere (for Mauritius is much further the luminous emanations-the direction, for in- north than southern auroras are ordinarily seen). stance, of the luminous flashes composing them-Mairan and Cassini were the first to point -may not explain the formation of the auroral out that auroras do not occur at all times with corona. In this case the position of the observer equal frequency or in equal splendor. The would affect the appearance of the phenomenon. former mentions that a great number of auroras -If we assume that reliance can be placed on were seen at the beginning of the 16th century the observations by means of which the height (a misprint probably for the 17th, as the conof the auroral arch has been estimated, we text seems to imply) to beyond the year 1624, must assign a considerable elevation to many after which nothing more was heard of them of these lights. On Oct. 17, 1819, an aurora till 1686. Kämtz mentions that between 1707 was observed simultaneously at Gosport, Kes- and 1790 there was a remarkable increase folwick, and Newtown Stewart, in Great Britain; lowed by decrease of auroral action, the maxand from the calculations made by Dalton the imum frequency being attained in 1790. Prof. meteorologist, the arch was estimated to be Olmsted considered that there was sufficient evi101 or 102 miles above the earth. More re- dence to establish a period of 20 years during cently Sir John Herschel estimated that the which auroral displays are frequent, preceded arch in the aurora of March 9, 1861, was 83 and followed by intervals of from 60 to 65 years miles above the earth. But he remarks that during which few are witnessed. But it is open "the auroral light has been seen below the to question whether the existence of this long clouds, as in the polar seas by Parry, Sherer, period is as yet established. The actual freand Ross, on Jan. 27, 1825; near the chain of quency of auroras cannot be inferred from obthe Rocky mountains on Dec. 2, 1850, by Har-servations made in temperate latitudes, where disty; and at Alford in Scotland on Feb. 24, 1842, by Farquharson; nay, even habitually seen as if hovering over the Coreen hills in the last-mentioned neighborhood, at a height of from 4,000 to 6,000 miles." Herr Galle, from observations made during the aurora of Feb.

alone hitherto any attempt has been made to determine long periods. The longest period which has been thoroughly established is one of about 11 years. This period is associated with the occurrence of magnetic disturbances in cycles of 11 years. The connection