did sentiments of this work. Lucan introduces the day on which the battle of Pharsalia was fought in terms, which leave no room to doubt, that Addison had the description in his "mind's eye," when he began the tragedy of Cato. "Segnior oceano quam lex eterna vocabat, Luctificus Titan, nunquam magis æthera contra Lucis; et attraxit nubes, non pabula flammæ ; Sed ne Thessalico purus luceret in orbe." It was unlucky that Addison could appropriate no circumstance of this magnificent description, but the one he has selected; the darkness of the morning, resulting from the quantity and thickness of the clouds, which induced him, perhaps, to dwell on it to excess. Obs. 1. Cicero, in his orations to the people, seems to have been guided by the opinion, that full, flowing, and copious diction, was most congruous to the taste, and best adapted to lead the resolutions, of a popular audience; but that it was less correct in itself, that it was unsuitable to the oratory of the senate, and that it was still more discordant with the style of his philosophical and critical works. 2. His great master, Demosthenes, in addressing similar audiences, never had recourse to a similar expedient. He avoided redundances, as equivocal and feeble. He aimed only to make the deepest and most efficient impression; and he employed for this purpose, the plainest, the fewest, and the most emphatic words. "Supernumerary words may swell a period, or captivate the ear, but they must diminish the effect upon the understanding or the heart."* (§ V. p. 70.) Ilus. 1. In support of these remarks, we shall select some passages from the orations of Cicero against Catiline, addressed to the people. "Multi sæpe honores diis immortalibus, justi, habiti sunt, ac debiti; sed profecto justiores nunquam. Erepti enim ex crudelissimo ac miserrimo intentu, et erepti sine cæde, sine sanguine, sine exercitu, sine dimicatione, me uno, togato duce et imperatore, vicistis." The words," cæde, sanguine, exercitu, dimicatione," are not synonymous, yet do they virtually include the meaning of one another, and therefore multiply words, without impressing or extending the meaning, without completing or embellishing the picture. Again. If there was no slaughter, it was unnecessary to add, that no blood was shed; and if there was no army, there could be neither slaughter, blood, nor fighting. He might as well have subjoined many other puerilities; as "without marching, without swords, without dust, without fatigue." Besides the quaintness of supposing himself a general" without an army," expressed in the clause, " me uno, togato duce et imperatore," duce and imperatore are perfectly synonymous, and one of them is therefore superfluous. 2. "Neque nos unquam, dum ille in urbe hostis fuisset, tantis periculis rempublicam, tanta pace, tanto otio, tanto silentio, liberassemus." The words," otio, silentio, pace," like those specified in the preceding example, all imply the signification of one another; they swell the period; they detain the same idea in view; but they convey no additional information. 3. Tillotson is among the most remarkable of English writers of reputation, for the profuse use of synonymous terms; as, for example, the following. * Barrow. "Acquiesce, and rest satisfied with."-"Upon the testimony and relation of others."-" Governed and conducted."-" Corruption and degeneracy."-"Embroiled and disordered."-"Wavering and unsettled."" Apprehensions and fears."-" Support and bear up.”"Positive and peremptory."-" Special and particular." 4. Even some late authors of great eminence, will not, perhaps, be admitted to be altogether exempt from reprehension. "I am certain and confident, that the account I have given is true."-" Many excursions, fortuitous and unguided, have been made."-" A word is unfamiliar by disuse, and unpleasant by unfamiliarity." In the first of these examples, the words, "certain" and "confident;" in the second, "fortuitous" and "unguided;" and in the third, "disuse" and "unfamiliarity," will be held, by nice critics, to be either too nearly synonymous, or to include too much the meaning of one another, to permit, with propriety, their being placed in juxta-position in the same sentence. (Art. 113. § VII.) Scholia. 1. It is observed by Barrow, that these accumulations of words may perhaps appear, in part, to result from the deficiency of language, which supplies not a pertinent word for every idea; but they are much more the offspring of indistinct apprehension in the authors. When our ideas are not clear, our expression savors of similar embarrassment. As we do not perceive completely what we intend to communicate, we multiply words, concluding, most erroneously, that the meaning is more fully and accurately expressed, and that the chance is greater of our being better understood. We do not attempt to remove the origin of the error-the obscurity of our thoughts; we do not attend to this fact, that the deepest impression is made when no more words are employed than are necessary to convey the sense, and that every superfluous expression contributes to confound, not to enlighten the understanding. "Obstat quicquid non adjuvat.' 2. But a considerable number of words, either synonymous, or nearly so, in a language, is so far from being a blemish, or a cause of disorder, that they are a source of much conveniency, and even of some pleasure. They enable us to infuse variety into style; and to prevent the monotony which arises from the too frequent recurrence of the same sound. These changes of words, and modulation, constitute the richness of a language, and the writer possesses important advantages, who finds his endeavours to improve his composition, seconded by the structure of the tongue which he employs. 3. Yet the number of synonymous words is not so great in any language as is commonly supposed. Few people are at much pains to ascertain the meaning of the words they use; or to inquire whether the sense which they affix to any word, is the most pertinent, or adopted by the most accurate judges. Even authors frequently assign their own meaning to their words, without inquiring scrupulously, whether it is the most classical, or the most proper. They generally infer, that the reader's opinion will coincide with their own, or that he will easily perceive the difference; so that no ambiguity shall arise. 4. For these reasons, synonymous words are supposed more numerous than they are, and much more so than nicety of criticism will admit. Authors, on one hand, are careless in the meanings which they affix to words. The critics, on the other, are refined, in establishing meanings which even accurate authors neither remember nor ap * Quinctilian. ply. The labors of the critic may excite attention, and diminish improprieties; but they cannot expect that practice will realize, in any language, the nice distinctions, or refined varieties, which they may have endeavored to introduce. 124. The instances which are given in the following illustrations, may themselves be of use; and they will serve to shew the necessity of attending, with care and strictness, to the exact import of words, if ever we would write with propriety or precision. Illus. 1. Austerity, severity, rigor. Austerity relates to the manner of living; severity, of thinking; rigor, of punishing. To austerity, is opposed effeminacy; to severity, relaxation; to rigor, clemency. A hermit is austere in his life; a casuist, severe in his application of religion or law; a judge, rigorous in his sentences. 2. Custom, habit. Custom, respects the action; habit, the actor. By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the same act; by habit, the effect which that repetition produces on the mind or body. By the custom of walking often in the streets, one acquires a habit of idleness. 3. Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. I am surprised, with what is new or unexpected; I am astonished, at what is vast or great; I am amazed, with what is incomprehensible; I am confounded, by what is shocking or terrible. 4. Desist, renounce, quit, leave off. Each of these words implies, some pursuit or object relinquished; but from different motives. We desist, from the difficulty of accomplishing. We renounce, on account of the disagreeableness of the object, or pursuit. We quit, for the sake of some other thing which interests us more; and we leave off, because we are weary of the design. A politician desists from his designs, when he finds they are impracticable; he renounces the court, because he has been affronted by it; he quits ambition for study or retirement; and leaves off his attendance on the great, as he becomes old and weary of it. 5. Pride, vanity. Pride, makes us esteem ourselves; vanity, makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say, as Dean Swift has done, that a man is too proud to be vain.. 6. Haughtiness, disdain. Haughtiness, is founded on the high opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on the low opinion we have of others. 7. To distinguish, to separate. We distinguish, what we do not want to confound with another thing; we separate, what we want to remove from it. Objects are distinguished from one another, by their qualities. They are separated, by the distance of time or place. 8. To weary, to fatigue. The continuance of the same thing wearies us; labor fatigues us. I am weary with standing; I am fatigued with walking. A suitor wearies us by his perseverance; fatigues us by his importunity. 9. To abhor, to detest. To abhor, imports, simply, strong dislike; to detest, imports also, strong disapprobation. One abhors being in debt; he detests treachery. 10. To invent, to discover. We invent things that are new; we discover what was before hidden. Galileo invented the telescope; Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. 11. Only, alone. Only, imports that there is no other of the same kind; alone, imports being accompanied by no other. An only child, is one who has neither brother nor sister; a child alone, is one who is left by itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise language, betwixt these two phrases, "virtue only makes us happy ;" and, "virtue alone makes us happy." Virtue only makes us happy, imports, that nothing else can do it. Virtue alone makes us happy, imports, that virtue, by itself, or unaccompanied with other advantages, is sufficient to do it. (Corol. Art. 150.) 12. Entire, complete. A thing is entire, by wanting none of its parts; complete, by wanting none of the appendages that belong to it. A man may have an entire house to himself; and yet not have one complete apartment. 13. Tranquillity, peace, calm. Tranquillity respects a situation free from trouble, considered in itself; peace, the same situation with respect to any causes that might interrupt it; calm, with regard to a disturbed situation going before, or following it. A good man enjoys tranquillity, in himself; peace, with others; and calm, after the storm. 14. A difficulty, an obstacle. A difficulty, embarrasses; an obstacle, stops us. We remove the one; we surmount the other. Generally, the first expresses somewhat arising from the nature and circumstances of the affair; the second, somewhat arising from a foreign cause. Philip found difficulty in managing the Athenians, from the nature of their dispositions; but the eloquence of Demosthenes was the greatest obstacle to his designs. 15. Wisdom, prudence. Wisdom, leads us to speak and act what is most proper. Prudence, prevents our speaking or acting improperly. A wise man, employs the most proper means for success; a prudent man, the safest means for not being brought into danger. 16. Enough, sufficient. Enough, relates to the quantity which one wishes to have of any thing; sufficient, relates to the use that is to be made of it. Hence, enough, generally imports a greater quantity than sufficient does. The covetous man never has enough; although he has what is sufficient for nature. (§ VII. p. 70.) 17. To avow, to acknowledge, to confess. Each of these words imports the affirmation of a fact, but in very different circumstances. To avow, supposes the person to glory in it; to acknowledge, supposes a small degree of faultiness, which the acknowledgment compensates; to confess, supposes a higher degree of crime. A patriot avows his opposition to a bad minister, and is applauded; a gentleman acknowledges his mistake, and is forgiven; a prisoner confesses the crime he is accused of, and is punished. 18. To remark, to observe. We remark, in the way of attention, in order to remember; we observe, in the way of examination, in order to judge. A traveller remarks the most striking objects he sees; a general observes all the motions of his enemy. (§ I. p. 69.) 19. Equivocal, ambiguous. An equivocal expression is one which has one sense open, and designed to be understood; another sense concealed, and understood only by the person who uses it. An ambiguous expression, is one which has apparently two senses, and leaves us at a loss which of them to give it. An equivocal expression, is used with an intention to deceive; an ambiguous one, when it is used with design, is with an intention not to give full information. An honest man will never employ an equivocal expression; a confused man may often utter ambiguous ones, without any design. I shall give only one instance more. (Art. 113.) 20. With, by. Both these particles express the connexion between some instrument, or means of effecting an end, and the agent who employs it; but with, expresses a more close and immediate connexion; by a more remote one. We kill a man with a sword; he died by violence. The criminal is bound with ropes by the executioner. The proper distinction in the use of these particles, is elegantly marked in a passage of Dr. Robertson's History of Scotland. When one of the old Scottish kings was making an inquiry into the tenure by which his nobles held their lands, they started up, and drew their swords: By these," said they, "we acquired our lands, and with these we will defend them."-" By these we acquired our lands," signifies the more remote means of acquisition by force and martial deed; and," with these we will defend them," signifies the immediate direct instrument, the sword, which they would employ in their defence. (§ VIII. p. 70.) Obs. These are instances of words in our language, which, by careless writers, are apt to be employed as perfectly synonymous, and yet are not so. Their significations approach, but are not precisely the same. The more the distinction in the meaning of such words is weighed, and attended to, the more clearly and forcibly shall we speak or write.* * The Abbe Girard's Synonymes Francoises, contains a large collection of such apparent synonymes in the language. The Abbe shows, with much accuracy, the difference in their signification. Nothing would contribute more to precise and elegant writing, than attention to the force of words, and to the several distinctions betwixt terms accounted synonymous in our own language. |