and glossaries proves nothing; as their authors are liable to error, notwithstanding they lived near the time when the author flourished, whose writings they profess to elucidate. It not unfrequently happens that a more recent interpreter, availing himself of all former helps, perceives the force of words much better than one that is more antient, and is consequently enabled to elicit the sense more correctly. The result, therefore, of our inquiry into the relative value of scholiasts and compilers of glossaries is, that in perusing their labours, we must examine them for ourselves, and form our judgment accordingly, whether they have succeeded, or failed, in their attempts to explain an author.

SECTION IV.

OF THE SUBJECT-MATTER.

ALTHOUGH, in interpreting words that have various meanings, some degree of uncertainty may exist as to which of their different senses is to be preferred; yet the ambiguity in such cases is not so great but that it may in general be removed, and the proper signification of the passage in question may be determined: for the subjectmatter that is, the topic of which the author is treating-plainly shows the sense that is to be attached to any particular word. For there is a great variety of agents introduced in the Scriptures, whose words and actions are recorded. Some parts of the Bible are written in a responsive or dialogue form; as the twenty-fourth psalm, Isa. vi. 3. and Rom. iii. 1-9. And the sense of a text is frequently mistaken, by not observing who is the speaker, and what is the specific topic of which he treats. One or two examples will illustrate the necessity of considering the subject-matter.

The Hebrew word (Be-SHER) literally signifies the skin; by a metonymy, the flesh beneath the skin; and by a synecdoche it denotes every animal, especially man considered as infirm or weak, as in Jer. xvii. 5. Cursed be the man that trusteth in man, and maketh FLESH his arm; there are also several other meanings derived from these, which it is not material now to notice. But that the word flesh is to be understood of man only in Gen. vi. 12. Psal. lxv. 2. and Job x. 4. will be evident on the slightest inspection of the subjectmatter. All flesh had corrupted his way - that is, all men had wholly departed from the rule of righteousness, or had made their way of life abominable throughout the world. And, in the psalm above cited, who can doubt but that by the word flesh men are intended: 0 thou that hearest prayer, unto thee shall all flesh, that is, all mankind, come. In like manner also, in Job x. 4. it is evident that flesh has the same meaning; if indeed the passage were at all obscure, the parallelism would explain it Hast thou the eyes of a man

(Heb. of flesh)? or seest thou as man seest?

But it is not merely with reference to the meaning of particular passages that a consideration of the subject-matter becomes necessary to the right understanding of Scripture. It is further of the greatest

importance in order to comprehend the various dispensations of God to man, which are contained in the sacred writings. For although the Bible comprises a great number of books, written at different times, yet they have a mutual connection with each other, and refer, in the Old Testament, with various but progressively increasing degrees of light and clearness, to a future Saviour, and in the New Testament to a present Saviour. With reference therefore to the several divine dispensations to man, the subject-matter of the whole Bible ought to be attentively considered: but, as each individual book embraces a particular subject, it will also be requisite carefully to weigh its subject-matter, in order to compreheng the design of the author.

SECTION V.

OF THE CONTEXT.

J. The Context defined and illustrated.-II. Rules for investigating the Context.

I. ANOTHER most important assistance, for investigating the meaning of words and phrases, is the consideration of the context, or the comparison of the preceding and subsequent parts of a dis

course.

1. If we analyse the words of an author, and take them out of their proper series, they may be so distorted as to mean any thing but what he intended to express Since therefore words have several meanings, and consequently are to be taken in various acceptations, a careful consideration of the preceding and subsequent parts will enable us to determine that signification, whether literal or figurative, which is best adapted to the passage in question.

A few instances will illustrate this subject, and show not only the advantage, but also the necessity, of attending to the context.

It has been questioned whether those words of the prophet Micaiah (1 Kings xxii. 15.) Go and prosper, for the Lord shall deliver it (Ramoth) into the hand of the king, are to be understood affirmatively according to their apparent meaning, or are to be taken in an ironical and contrary sense? That they are to be understood in the latter sense, the consideration of the context will plainly show, both from the prophet's intention, and from the prophetic denunciation afterwards made by him. Hence it may be inferred that some sort of ironical gesture accompa nied Micaiah's prediction, which circumstance ought to be borne in mind by the interpreter of Scripture.1

Further, there is a difference of opinion whether the address of Job's wife, (Job ii. 9.) is to be understood in a good sense, as Bless (or ascribe glory to) God, and die, or in a different signification, Curse God and die, as it is rendered in our authorised version. Circumstances show that the last is the proper meaning; because as yet Job had not sinned with his lips, and consequently his wife had no ground for charging him with indulging a vain opinion of his integrity.

Job xli. Whether the leviathan is a whale or a crocodile, has also divided the judgment of commentators. That the latter animal is intended is evident from the circumstances described in the context, which admirably agree with the crocodile, but can in no respect be applied to the whale: for instance, ch. xli. 17. &c. relative to the hardness of his skin, and v. 13-16. concerning his teeth and impenetrable scales.

Once more, it has been doubted whether our Lord's command to his disciples,

1 See a further illustration of this passage in Vol. I. p. 317.

to provide neither gold nor silver in their purses (Matt. x. 9.) be a rule of perpetual observation. That it was only a temporary command is evident from the preceding and subsequent parts of the chapter, which prove that particular mission to have been only a temporary one; and that, as they were to go for a short time through Judea, and then to return to Jesus, he therefore forbade them to take any thing that would retard their progress.

2. The context of a discourse or book, in the Scriptures, may comprise either one verse, a few verses, entire periods or sections, entire chapters, or whole books.

Thus if 1 Cor. x. 16. be the passage under examination, the preceding and subsequent parts of the epistle, which belong to it, are the eighth, ninth, and tenth chapters. If Isa. li. be the chapter in question, the reader must not stop at the end of it, but continue his perusal to the 12th verse of ch. lii.; for these together form one subject or argument of prediction, in which the prophet is announcing to his countrymen the certainty of their deliverance and return from the Babylonish captivity. This entire portion ought therefore to be read at once, in order to apprehend fully the prophet's meaning. In like manner, the verses from v. 13. of ch. lii. to the end of ch. liii. form a new and entire section relative to the sufferings of the Messiah. Here then is a wrong division of chapters, to which no regard should be paid in examining the context of a book. Ch. li. ought to include v. 12. of ch. lii. and ch. lii. ought to commence at v. 13. and be continued to the end of ch. liii. In like manner, the first verse of the fourth chapter of Saint Paul's Epistle to the Colossians ought to be joined to the third chapter: the slightest attention to this point will enable a diligent student to add numerous other examples.

3. Sometimes a book of Scripture comprises only one subject or argument, in which case the whole of it must be referred to precedents and subsequents, and ought to be considered together.

Of this description is Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, which consists of two parts, doctrinal and practical. The design of the doctrical portion is to show, that although there was a difference between Jewish and Gentile believers, inasmuch as the former enjoyed a priority of time in point of expecting and acknowledging Christ, and through the free grace of God they were a church or congregation of believers before the Gentiles; yet that, now, the latter are become partakers of the same grace with them, and being thus admitted to this communion of grace, every real distinction between them is abolished; and therefore that both Jews and Gentiles together, form one body of the church under one head, even Jesus Christ. Other special doctrines indeed are incidentally mentioned; but these are either adduced to explain and enforce the principal doctrine, or they are derived from it. The practical part or exhortation, which naturally flows from the doctrine inculcated, is concord and peace between Jew and Gentile, which the apostle enforces with great beauty and energy.1

To this head may also be referred the Psalms, each of which being separated from the other, and having no connection with the preceding or following Psalm, for the most part comprises a distinct and entire subject. That some of the Psalms have been divided, and forcibly disjoined, which ought to have remained united, and to have formed one ode, is evident as well from the application of sacred criticism as from the subject-matter. The number of the Psalms by no means corresponds either in manuscripts or in the antient versions. Thus, in some manuscripts, the first and second Psalms are not reckoned at all, while in others the former is considered as part of the second Psalm that they are two distinct compositions, is evident from a comparison of the subject-matter of each Psalm. In the first Psalm the characters of the pious man and the sinner, as well as their respective ends, are contrasted: the second Psalm is prophetic of the Messiah's exaltation. The ninth and tenth Psalms are united together in the Septuagint version; while the hundred and sixteenth and hundred and forty-seventh are, each, divided into two. The argument which pervades the forty-second and forty-third Psalms plainly shows that they are properly but one divine ode, and are therefor

:

1 Moldenhaweri Introductio ad Libros Vet. et Nov. Fœderis, p. 307. Professor Franck's Guide to the Reading of the Scriptures, translated by Mr. Jacques, p 178. (1st edit.)

rightly joined together in many manuscripts, although they occur as separate comgositions in all our printed editions.1

II. In examining the context of a passage, it will be desirable,

1. To investigate each word of every passage: and as the connection is formed by PARTICLES, these should always receive that signification which the subject-matter and context require.

The Concordances of Noldius and Taylor already noticed, and also Glassius's Philologia Sacra,2 will materially assist in ascertaining the force of the Hebrew particles; as will the elaborate work of Hoogeveen on the subject of the Greek particles. Further, where particles are wanting, as they sometimes are, it is only by examining the argument and context that we can rightly supply them. For instance, the conditional conjunction is sometimes wanting, as in Gen. xlii. 38., and [if] mischief befal him by the way 4 in Exod. iv. 23., and [if] thou refuse to let him go. Particles of comparison also are frequently wanting, as in Gen. xvi. 12., he will be a wild man; literally, he will be a wild ass man, that is, [like] a wild ass. How appropriately this description was given to the descendants of Ishmael, will readily appear by comparing the character of the wild ass in Job xxxix. 5-8. with the wandering, lawless, and freebooting lives of the Arabs of the Desert, as portrayed by all travellers. Psal. xi. 1. Flee [as] sparrows to your mountain. Psal. xii. 6. The words of the Lord are pure words, [as] silver tried in a furnace of earth. Isa. ix. 18. They shall mount up [as or like] the ascending of smoke. Similar examples occur in the New Testament; as in John v. 17. My father worketh hitherto, and I work; that is, as my father worketh hitherto, se also do I work together with him. Sometimes particles are wanting both at the beginning and end of a sentence: thus Job xxiv. 19. [As] drought nd heat consume the snow: so doth the grave those which have sinned. Jer. xvii. 11. [As] the partridge sitteth on eggs, and hatcheth not; [so] he that getteth riches, and not by right, &c. Numerous similar instances occur in the book of Job, and especially in the Proverbs; where, it is but justice to our admirable au thorised version to add, that the particles omitted are properly supplied in Italic characters, and thus complete the sense.

2. If the meaning of a single verse is to be ascertained, the five, six, or seven verses immediately preceding should first be read with minute

attention.

Sometimes a single passage will require a whole chapter, or several of the pre ceding and following chapters, or even the entire book, to be perused, and that not once or twice, but several times. The advantage of this practice will be very great because, as the same thing is frequently stated more briefly and obscurely in the former part of a book, which is more clearly and fully explained in the subsequent portion, such a perusal will render every thing plain to the meanest capacity. For instance, that otherwise difficult passage, Rom. ix. 18. Therefore hath he mercy on whom he will have mercy, and whom he will he hardeneth, will become perfectly clear by a close examination of the context, beginning at verse 18. of chapter viii. and reading to the end of the eleventh chapter; this portion of the epistle being most intimately connected. Disregarding this simple, and all but self-evident canon, some expositors have explained 1 Pet. ii. 8. as meaning that certain persons were absolutely appointed to destruction; a notion, not only contradicting the whole tenor of Scripture, but also repugnant to every idea which we are there taught to entertain of the mercy and justice of God. An attentive consideration of the context, and of the proper punctuation of the passage alluded

1 They are considered, and translated, as one Psalm, by Bishop Horsley. See his Version of the Psalms, vol. i. pp. 110-114. and the notes.

2 See particularly, tract v.-viii. on adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, tom. i. pp. 361-556. ed. Dathii.

Hoogeveen, Doctrina Particularum Græcarum, 2 vols. 4to. 1769. Though treating of Greek particles generally, this elaborate work incidentally illustrates a great number of passages in the New Testament. A valuable abridgment of it, with the notes of various literati, was published by Professor Schutz at Leipsic_in 1806, which has been handsomely reprinted at Glasgow, 1813. See also Dr. Macknight on the Epistles, vol. i. essay 4. § 74., to the end of that essay.

4 Purver rightly supplies it, and renders the passage thus, and should death befal him in the way in the authorised English version the conjunction and is omitted, and the conditional if is properly supplied.

VOL. I.

68

to (for the most antient manuscripts have scarcely any points), would have prevented them from giving so repulsive an interpretation. The first epistle of Peter (it should be recollected) was addressed to believing Jews. After congratulating them on their happiness in being called to the glorious privileges and hopes of the Gospel, he takes occasion to expatiate upon the sublime manner in which it was introduced, both by the prophets and apostles; and, having enforced his general exhortation to watchfulness, &c. by an affecting representation of our relation to God, our redemption by the precious blood of Christ, the vanity of all worldly enjoyments, and the excellence and perpetuity of the Gospel dispensation (ch. i. throughout); he proceeds (ii. 1-12.) to urge them by a representation of their Christian privileges, to receive the word of God with meekness, to continue in the exercise of faith in Christ as the great foundation of their eternal hopes, and to maintain such an exemplary conduct, as might adorn his Gospel among the unconverted Gentiles. Wherefore, says he, in consideration of the everlasting permanency and invariable certainty of the word of God, laying aside all malice, and all guile, and hypocrisies, and envies, and all evil speakings, which are se contrary to its benevolent design, with all simplicity, as new born babes2 (or infants), who are regenerated by divine grace, desire the sincere milk of the words that ye may grow thereby [unto salvation]3 since (or seeing that) you have tasted that the Lord is gracious. To whom coming, as unto a living stone, disallowed indeed of men, but chosen of God, and precious, Ye also (who believe,) as living stones are built up a spiritual house, an holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices by Jesus Christ. (Wherefore also it is contained in the Scripture, Behold I lay in Sion a chief corner-stone, elect, precious; and he that believeth on it (confideth in it) shall not be confounded (or ashamed). Unto you, therefore, WHO BELIEVE he is precious; but unto them that DISBELIEVE, amidovai,4 the stone which the builders disallowed, the same is become the head of the corner, and a stone of 1 See this proved, infra, Vol. IV. Part II. Chap. IV. Sect. III. § III.

2 This expression very emphatically denotes those who are newly converted or regenerated, as the apostle had said (1 Pet. i. 23.) the believing Jews were, through the incorruptible word of God. It is well known that the antient Jewish rabbies styled new proselytes to their religion, little children and new-born babes; and Peter, who was a Jew, very naturally adopts the same phraseology, when writing to Jewish converts to the Gospel.

3 These words [unto salvation, cis owrnpiav], though omitted in the common printed editions, are, by Griesbach, inserted in the text, of which they form an integral part. They are found in the Codices Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Ephremi (the three oldest manuscripts extant); in thirty-nine others of good authority, though of less antiquity; and also in the Old Syriac, the Philoxenian (or later) Syriac, the Arabic edited by Erpenius, the Coptic, Ethiopic, Armenian, Sclavonic, and Vulgate versions, and are quoted by Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, Cyril, Joannes Damascenus, and Theophylact, among the Greek Fathers; and by the Latin Fathers, Jerome, Rufinus, Augustine, Gildas, Cassiodorus, and the venerable Bede. This reading is, therefore, undoubtedly genuine, and is of great importance. It shows the reason why the believing Jews were regenerated, and also why they were to desire the unadulterated doctrines of the Gospel, viz. that they might thereby increase, or grow up, unto salvation. This was the end they should always have in view; and nothing could so effectually promote this end, as continually receiving the pure truth of God, praying for the fulfilment of its promises, and acting under its dictates.

4 The verb and (whence the participle azedovures) and its derivative substantive axuda, signify such a disbelief, as constitutes the party guilty of obstinacy, or wilful refusal to credit a doctrine or narrative. In the New Testament, it is specially used concerning those who obstinately persist in rejecting the doctrine of the Gospel, regardless of all the evidences that accompanied it. Thus, in John iii. 36. annidur Tw viw, he that disbelieveth the Son, is opposed to him that believeth on the Son, TW RISEVOUTE ES Tov viov. So, in Acts xiv. 2. those Jews who stirred up the Gentiles, and made them evil affected towards the brethren, are termed i arcidouvres lovdato, the disbelieving (or, as it is not ill-rendered in our authorised version), the unbelieving or wilfully incredulous Jews, who are opposed to the great multitude both of the Jews and also of the Greeks, who believed, mistreat (verse 1.) The same verb is found in Acts xvii. 5. and xix. 9. Rom. xi. 30, 31. and Ì Pet. iii. 1. (Gr.) in which last place Saint Peter exhorts wives, who believed the Gospel, to be in subjection to their husbands, that, if any, antidovor rw koyw, disbelieve the word, they may also without the word be won over to the Gospel, by the exemplary connersation of the wives. The lexicographer, Suidas, (as cited by Schleusner, in