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CHAPTER II.

ON THE SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS AND PHRASES.

I. General rules for investigating the meaning of words. — II. On emphatic words. III. Rules for the investigation of emphases. 1. SINCE, as we have already seen, words compose sentences, and these form senses, it is necessary to ascertain the individual meaning of words, before we proceed further to investigate the sense of Scripture. In the prosecution of this important work, we may observe, generally, that as the same method and the same principles of interpretation are common both to the sacred volume and to the productions of uninspired man, consequently the signification of words in the Holy Scriptures must be sought precisely in the same way in which the meaning of words in other works usually is or ought to be sought. Hence also it follows, that the method of investigating the signification of words in the Bible is no more arbitrary than it is in other books, but is in like manner regulated by certain laws, drawn from the nature of languages. And since no text of Scripture has more than one meaning, we must endeavour to find out that one true sense precisely in the same manner as we would investigate the sense of Homer or any other antient writer; and in that sense, when so ascertained, we ought to acquiesce, unless, by applying the just rules of interpretation, it can be shown that the meaning of the passage has been mistaken, and that another is the only just, true, and critical sense of the place. This principle, duly considered, would alone be sufficient for investigating the sense of Scripture; but as there are not wanting persons who reject it altogether, and as it may perhaps appear too generally expressed, we shall proceed to consider it more minutely in the following observations.

1. Ascertain the notion affixed to a word by the persons in general, by whom the language either is now or formerly was spoken, and especially in the particular connection in which such notion is affixed.

2. The meaning of a word used by any writer, is the meaning affixed to it by those for whom he immediately wrote. For there is a kind of natural compact between those who write and those who speak a language; by which they are mutually bound to use words in a certain sense: he, therefore, who uses such words in a different signification, in a manner violates that compact, and is in danger of leading men into error, contrary to the design of God," who will have all men to be saved, and to come unto the knowledge of the truth." (1 Tim. ii. 4.)

3. The words of an author must not be so explained as to make them inconsistent with his known character, his known sentiments, his known situation, and the known circumstances under which he wrote.

4. Although the force of particular words can only be derived from etymology, yet too much confidence must not be placed in that frequently uncertain science.

5. The received signification of a word is to be retained, unless weighty and necessary reasons require that it should be abandoned or neglected.

Thus, we shall be justified in rejecting the received meaning of a word in the following cases, viz..

(1.) If such meaning clash with any doctrine revealed in the Scriptures.

Thus, according to our authorised English version, Eli's feeble reproaches of his profligate sons served only to lull them into security, because the LORD could slay them (1 Sam. ii. 25.), the meaning of which rendering is, to make their continuance in sin the effect of Jehovah's determination to destroy them; and thus apparently support the horrid tenet, that God wills his creatures to commit crimes, because he is determined to display his justice in their destruction. It is true that the ordinarily received meaning of the Hebrew particle (KI) is, because; but in this instance it ought to be rendered therefore, or though, which makes their wilful and impenitent disobedience the cause of their destruction, and is in unison with the whole tenor of the sacred writings. The proper rendering therefore of this passage is, Notwithstanding they hearkened not unto the voice of their father. THEREFORE the LORD would slay them.

(2.) If a certain passage require a different explanation from that which it appears to present: as Mal. iv. 5, 6. compared with Luke 17. and Matt. xi. 14.

(3.) If the thing itself will not admit of a tropical or figurative meaning being affixed to the word.

6. The idea conveyed by a word, does not always contain the author's true meaning: for sometimes metaphors require another sense, as in Matt. xvi. 6, 7. 12. Mark ix. 43—48. and John iii. 3. The nature and application of Metaphors are discussed infra, Chapter V. Section III.

7. Where a word has several significations in common use, that must be selected which best suits the passage in question. The sense of words and phrases ought to be ascertained, from those texts, in which it is clear and undoubted from the connection, or from the nature of the subject to which they are applied; and this should determine their signification, in places where there are no circumstances, by which it can be ascertained with certainty. The clear meaning of a phrase, in any part of the Scriptures, has great authority for determining its sense in any other part where its signification is doubtful.

The word blood may be adduced as an illustration of this remark. The great importance of this term, and its frequent use in the Jewish religion, rendered it very significant in the sacred writings. And almost all things are, by the law, purged with BLOOD; and without the shedding of BLOOD is no remission. (Heb. ix. 22.) The reason for consecrating the blood to God, rather than any other part of the victim, is mentioned. (Lev. xvii. 11.) For the life of the flesh is in the BLOOD; and I have given it to you upon the altar, to make an atonement for your souls; for it is the BLOOD that maketh an atonement for the soul.

i. The term is sometimes used to denote, our natural descent, from one com mon family. And hath made of one BLOOD all nations of men, for to dwell on all the face of the earth. (Acts xvii. 26.) Flesh and blood is an expression, which signifies the present natural state of man, unaided by divine grace. When Paul was converted, he did not consult with flesh and blood. (Gal. i. 16.) When Peter declared his belief, that his master was Christ, the Son of the living God; Jesus answered, and said unto him, blessed art thou, Simon Barjona; for FLESH AND BLOOD hath not revealed it unto thee, but my father which is in heaven. (Matt. xvi. 16.) We are assured that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God. ii. The term blood is used figuratively, for death. To resist unto blood, is to contend unto death. (Heb. xii. 4.) When I passed by thee, and saw thee polluted in thine own BLOOD, I said unto thee, when thou wast in thy BLOOD, live. (Ezek. xvi. 6.) To shed blood is to murder: hence a cruel murderer is called a bloody man. To give the wicked blood to drink, is to put into their hand the cup of

1 Noldius, in his work on Hebrew particles, has shown that (1) has the meaning of therefore, in a great number of instances, among which he quotes this very passage. He has also adduced others, where it evidently means though. Purver adopts the latter, and thus translates the clause in question: Notwithstanding they would not hearken to the voice of their father, THOUGH the Lord should slag them.

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death. The metaphorical term is sometimes employed in personification. What hast thou done, said God to Cain. The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground. (Gen. iv. 10.) Ye are come to the blood of sprinkling, that speaketh better things than that of Abel. (Heb. xii. 24.)

iii. The term blood, in the Scriptures, frequently means, the sufferings and death of Christ; considered as an atonement for the soul of sinners. Being justified by his BLOOD, we shall be saved from wrath, through him. (Rom. v. 9.) These expressions, in the New Testament, are an allusion to the typical blood, which was so plentifully shed, under the Old. Christians are taught to reason; that if the blood of bulls, and of goats, and the ashes of an heifer, sprinkling the unclean, sanctifieth to the purifying of the flesh; how much more shall the BLOOD OF CHRIST, who, through the eternal spirit offered himself without spot to God, purge your consciences, from dead works, to serve the living God. (Heb. ix. 13, 14.) God hath set forth Jesus Christ to be a propitiation, that we may have faith in his blood; that is, that we may believe in the efficacy of his atonement. We have redemption through his blood; even the forgiveness of sins, according to the riches of his grace. (Eph. i. 7.) We were not redeemed with corruptible things, as silver and gold, but with the precious blood of Christ, as of a lamb without blemish, and without spot. (1 Pet. i. 18, 19.)

iv. In the Scriptures, the blood of Christ is sometimes represented as the procuring cause of our justification. Much more being justified by his blood, we shall be saved from wrath, through him. (Rom. v. 9.) The term blood, when used in this sense, means the merits of Christ's atonement. But in other passages, our sanctification is imputed to the blood of Christ. How much more shall the BLOOD of Christ, who through the eternal spirit offered himself without spot to God, purge your conscience from dead works, to serve the living God. (Heb. ix. 14.) The saints are represented as walking in white; because they had washed their robes in the blood of the Lamb. (Rev. vii. 14.) The term blood, when used in this figurative sense, evidently signifies the doctrines of the cross; which are the great mean of purifying the believer's heart. Now ye are clean, said Christ to his disciples, through the word, which I have spoken unto you. (John xv. 3.)

This distinction between the blood of Christ, as the procuring cause of our justification, and as the mean of our sanctification, ought to be clearly understood, by those who study the Scriptures. In the first sense, the term blood means Christ's atonement, as presented to the father; in the second, the doctrine of his sufferings, and crucifixion, as applied to the sinner's conscience. The Lord Jesus Christ gave himself for us, that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify to himself a peculiar people, zealous of good works. (Tit. ii. 14.) A belief of this doctrine is the mean, which the Holy Spirit employs, to promote the sanctification of all who believe.1

8. The distinctions between words which are apparently synonymous, should be carefully examined and considered.

In the Latin language many words are accounted perfectly synonymous; which, however, only partially accord together. Thus, a person whose discourse is cut short, is said to be silent (silere); and one who has not begun to speak, is said to hold his tongue (tacere.) Cicero speaking of beauty, observes, that there are two kinds of it; the one dignified and majestic (dignitas); the other soft and graceful (venustas); the latter to be considered proper to women, the former to men.2 The same remark will apply to the language of Scripture. For instance, in the 119th Psalm there are not fewer than ten different words, pointing out the word of God; viz. Law, Way, Word, Statutes, Judgments, Commandments, Precepts, Testimonies, Righteousness, and Truth, or Faithfulness. Now all these words, though usually considered as synonymous, are not literally synonymous, but refer to some latent and distinguishing properties of the Divine Word, whose manifold excellencies and perfections are thus illustrated with much elegant variety of diction. In the New Testament we meet with similar instances, as in Col. ii. 22. εντάλματα και διδασκαλίας ανθρώπων, the commandments and doctrines of men. Doctrines in this passage, include truths propounded to be believed or known; Commands imply laws, which direct what is to be done or avoided: the latter depend upon and are derived from the former. The apostle is speaking of the traditions taught by the elders, and the load of cumbrous ceremonies commanded by them, 1 Smith's Essays on Christianity, pp. 214-217.

2 Cum autem pulchritudinis duo genera sint, quorum in altero venustas sit, in altero dignitas; venustatem muliebrem ducere debemus; dignitatem virilem. Cicero de Officiis, lib. i. c. xxxvi. (op. tom. xii. p. 57. ed. Bipont.)

in addition to the significant rites prescribed in the law of Moses. In Rom. xiv. 13. яроoкoppa, a stumbling block, means a slighter cause of offence, viz. that which wounds and disturbs the conscience of another; okavdalov, an occasion to fall, means a more weighty cause of offence, that is, such as may cause any one to apostatise from the Christian faith. Similar examples occur in Rom. xvi. 16. 1 Tim. ii. 1. and 1 Pet. iv. 3:1

9. The epithets introduced by the sacred writers, are also to be carefully weighed and considered, as all of them have either a declarative or explanatory force, or serve to distinguish one thing from another, or unite these two characters together. The epithets of Scripture then are: (1.) Exegetical or Explanatory, that is, such as declare the nature and properties of a thing.

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Thus in Tit. ii. 11. the grace of God is termed saving, not indeed as if there were any other divine grace bestowed on man, that was not saving but because the grace of God revealed in the Gospel is the primary and true source of eternal life. Similar epithets occur in 2 Tim. i. 9. in which our calling is styled holy; in 1 Pet. iv. 3. where idolatry is termed abominable; and in 1 Pet. ii. 9. where the Gospel is called the marvellous light of God, because it displays so many amazing scenes of divine wonders.

(2.) Diacritical or Distinctive, that is, such as distinguish one thing from another.

For instance, in 1 Pet. v. 4. the crown of future glory is termed a never-fading crown, apapavrivos, to distinguish it from that corruptible crown which, in the Grecian games, was awarded to the successful candidate. In like manner, genuino faith, in 1 Tim. i. 5. is called undissembled, avUROKOITOS; God, in the same chapter, (v. 17.) is designated the King incorruptible, Bacideus apdapros; and in Rom. xii. 1. Christians' dedicating themselves to God, is termed a reasonable service, Aarpeia Moyien, in contradistinction to the Jewish worship, which chiefly consisted in the sacrifice of irrational creatures.

(3.) Both Explanatory and Distinctive, as in Rom. ix. 5.

Where Christ is called God blessed for ever. By which epithet both his divine nature is declared, and he is eminently distinguished from the Gentile deities. Similar examples occur in John xvii. 11. (compared with Luke xi. 11-13.) where God is termed Holy Father; in 1 John v. 20. where Christ is styled the true God, as also the Great God in Tit. ii. 13. and Heb. ix. 14. where the Holy Spirit is denominated the Eternal Spirit.

10. General terms are used sometimes in their whole extent, and sometimes in a restricted sense, and whether they are to be understood in the one way or in the other, must depend upon the scope, subject matter, context, and parallel passages.

Thus, in 1 Thess. iii. 8. St. Paul, speaking to the Thessalonians, says, Now we live, if (more correctly, when) ye stand fast in the Lord. The word live, in this passage, is not to be understood in its whole extent, as implying that the apostle's physical life or existence depended on their standing fast in the Lord; but must be understood in a limited sense. It is as if he had said, "Your steadfastness in the faith gives me new life and comfort. I now feel that I live to some purpose I relish and enjoy life-since my labour in the Gospel is not in vain." That this is the true meaning of the apostle, is evident both from the subject matter and from the context. For Saint Paul, filled with deep anxiety lest the Thessalonians should have been induced to depart from the faith by the afflictions which they had to endure, had sent Timothy to raise and comfort them. Having heard of their constancy in the faith, he exclaims, Now we live if ye stand fast in the Lord. II. The preceding remarks are chiefly applicable to the investigation of the ordinary signification of words; but, besides these, it is well known that the Scriptures, especially the New Testament, abound with emphases, that is, with phrases, which import much more than words in their ordinary acceptation can possibly convey.

1 On the subject of words commonly thought synonymous, see Dr. Campbell's Dissertation prefixed to his translation of the Gospels, vol. i. pp. 164-240. edit. 1807.

Emphases are either verbal, that is, such as occur in words, both separately and together, or real, that is, such as appear in the magnitude and sublimity of the thing described by words. The propriety of this division has been contested by Huet, Érnesti,1 and some others, who affirm that emphases subsist in words only, and not in things, and that in things grandeur and sublimity alone are to be found. On this classification, however, there is a difference of opinion: and Longinus himself, who has placed emphases among the sources of the sublime, seems to have admitted that they exist also in things. In the first instance, unquestionably, they are to be sought in words, sometimes in particles, and also in the Greek article; and when their force is fully apprehended, they enable us to enter into the peculiar elegances and beauties of the sacred style. A few examples illustrative of this remark must suffice.

Verbal Emphases.

(1.) Emphases of the Greek Article.

In Matt. xxvi. 28. our Saviour having instituted the sacrament of the Lord's supper, after giving the cup to his disciples, adds:"for this is my blood of the New Testament, which is shed for many for the remission of sins." Almost every syllable of the original Greek, especially the articles, is singularly emphatic. It runs thus - Τουτο γαρ εςι Το αίμα μου, ΤΟ της καινης διαθήκης, ΤΟ περι πολλών εκχυνομενον εις άφεσιν αμαρτιών. The following literal translation and paraphrase do not exceed its meaning:- "For this is THAT blood of mine, which was pointed out by all the sacrifices under the Jewish law, and particularly by the shedding and sprinkling of the blood of the paschal lamb; THAT BLOOD of the sacrifice slain for the ratification of the new covenant; THE blood ready to be poured out for the multitudes, the whole Gentile world as well as the Jews, for the taking away of sins; sin, whether original or actual, in all its power and guilt, in all its energy and pollution."3 In Matt. xvi. 16. the following sentence occurs: -Ev as 'O Xpisos 'O vios Tor Beoυ TOY (WYтos, "Thou art THE Christ, THE SON OF THE living God." In this passage, also, every word is highly emphatic, agreeably to a rule of the Greek language, which is observed both by the sacred writers, as well as by the most elegant profane authors, viz. that when the article is placed before a noun, it denotes a certain and definitive object; but when it is omitted, it in general indicates any person or thing indefinitely. The apostle did not say, "Thou art Christ, son of God," without the article; but, "Thou art THE Christ, the Messiah, THE SON," that very son, thus positively asserting his belief of that fundamental article of the Christian religion, the divinity and office of the Redeemer of the world- "Of the living God, or of God THE living one." Similar instances occur in John i. 21. Ο προφήτης ει συ ; 66 art thou THAT Prophet" whom

1 Ernesti (Inst. Interp. Nov. Test. p. 41.) and after him Bauer (Herm. Sacra. p. 232.) and Morus (Hermeneut. Nov. Test. Acroases, pp. 323-326.) have distinguished emphases into temporary and permanent. The former are found in words at a certain time and place, and arise from the feelings of the party speaking, or from the importance of the thing. The latter or permanent emphases are those, in which a word receives from custom a greater signification than it has of itself, and which it retains under certain forms of speech. The knowledge of both these is to be derived from a consideration of the context and subject matter. But the examples adduced in defence of this definition concur to make it a distinction without a difference, when compared with the ordinary classification of emphases into verbal and real, which we have accordingly retained.

2 The importance and force of the Greek Article are fully illustrated in the late Bishop of Calcutta's (Dr. Middleton's) Doctrine of the Greek Article, 8vo. 1808; in the late Mr. Granville Sharp's Remarks on the Uses of the Definitive Article of the Greek Text of the New Testament, 12mo. 1803; in Dr. Wordsworth's Six Letters to Mr. Sharp; and in the Supplementary Researches of Mr. Hugh Stuart Boyd, inserted in Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on Eph. vi. and at the end of his Commentary on the Epistle to Titus. In the latter, Mr. Boyd has combated and refuted the philosophical objections of Unitarians.

3 Da A. Clarke's Discourse on the Eucharist, pp. 61, 62.

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