JAMES JACOBITES; LONDONDERRY: 1689; SAINT-GERMAINS: James I (1394-1437), king of Scotland, 14061437. He repressed the great feudatories and kept peace with England and France. See SCOTLAND: 1400-1436; 1437. James II (1430-1460), king of Scotland, 14371460, son of James 1. He continued the policy of repression of the feudatories. See SCOTLAND: 14371460. James III (1451-1488), king of Scotland, 1460-1488, son of James II. He favored men of inferior rank to the great houses, which provoked the latter to an uprising led by his son James, in which the king was defeated and killed. See SCOTLAND: 1482-1488. James IV (1473-1513), king of Scotland, 14881513, son of James III. Led the rebels against his father and defeated him; his peaceful relations with England became strained during Henry VIII's reign; sought an offensive alliance with France, and invaded England in 1513, where he was killed.-See also SCOTLAND: 1502-1504. James V (1512-1542), king of Scotland, 15131542, son of James IV. He assumed control of the government, 1528; his policy was the protection of the poor against the oppression of the rich; at war with England and suffered the loss of his army, 1542. See SCOTLAND: 1542. James VI, king of Scotland. See JAMES I, king of England. JAMES, Henry (1843-1916), American novelist. See AMERICAN LITERATURE: 1894-1895. JAMES, William Henry (1776-1873), English pioneer locomotive experimenter. See AUTOMOBILES: 1780-1824. See U. S. A.: JAMES ISLAND, Battle on. 1863 (July: South Carolina). JAMESON, Sir Leander Starr (1853-1917), Appointed British physician and administrator. administrator of Rhodesia, 1891; reorganized an expedition against Matabele, 1893; invaded the Transvaal, but was forced to surrender to the Boers, December, 1895; fought against the Boers, 1899-1900; elected to the Cape Legislative Assembly for Kimberley, 1900; premier, 1904-1908; member of the Cape Parliament, 1910-1912. Administration of Rhodesia. AFRICA, UNION OF: 1894-1895. See SOUTH Raid into the Transvaal.-Investigations.Indemnity claimed by South African republic. See SOUTH AFRICA, UNION OF: 1895-1896; 1896 (January); 1896 (July); 1897 (February); 1897 (February-July). Premier of Cape Colony. - Continuance of policy of Cecil Rhodes.-In movement for South African union.-Active in Botha ministry. See SOUTH AFRICA, UNION OF: 1902-1904; 1908-1909; 1910-1913. At imperial conference of 1907. See BRITISH EMPIRE: 1907. ALSO IN: I. Colvin, Life of Jameson. JAMESTOWN, first permanent settlement of the English in the United States, located in Virginia, about thirty-two miles above the mouth of the James river. JANUS 1607-1609.-Founding of colony.-Growth.New charter granted. See VIRGINIA: 1606-1607; 1607-1610; 1609-1616. 1610-1677.-Lord Delaware appointed president.-John Smith superseded.-Under rule of Argall and Yeardley.-Controlled alternately See VIRby Bacon and Governor Berkeley. GINIA: 1609-1616; 1617-1619; 1660-1677. JAMESTOWN TERCENTENNIAL EXPOSITION.-The three hundredth anniversary of the first permanent English settlement in America was celebrated on the site of the settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, by an Exposition which was opened by President Roosevelt on the 26th of April, 1907. The advantages of the place for naval display tempted Congress to give that character, in the main, to so much of the celebration as was organized under national auspices that other features were quite eclipsed. But the show, from many nations, of battle ships and the paraphernalia of naval war was superb. JAMMU, or Jamu, native state in India. See KASHMIR. JAMNIA, Battle of (B.C. 164), defeat by Gorgias, the Syrian general, of part of the army of Judas Maccabæus which he left under his generals Joseph and Azarius.-Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, bk. 12, ch. 8. JAMNIA, School of.-A famous school of Jewish theology, established by Jochanan, who escaped from Jerusalem during the siege by Titus.-H. Graetz, History of the Jews, v. 2, p. 327. JAN JORISZ. See JORIS, DAVID. JANICULUM, hill in Rome. VATICAN: Ancient Leonine city. See LATIUM; The JANISSARIES, Turkish military force. force at first consisted wholly of the children of Christian parents, forcibly taken by the Turkish government and specially trained for this service. For many years it was the bulwark of the Ottoman empire. See also TURKEY: 1326-1359; 17891812; 1826; MILITARY ORGANIZATION: 42. JANKOWITZ, Battle of (1645). See GERMANY: 1640-1645. JANNINA, or Iannina, town of Epirus, once part of Albania and under Turkish rule; now belonging to Greece. It has had a long and troubled history. From 1788 until 1822 it was the seat of the famous Ali Pasha who was called the "Lion of Janina." See ALI PASHA; BALKAN STATES: Map. 1913.-Capture by Greeks. See BALKAN STATES: 1912-1913; TURKEY: 1912-1913. JANSEN, Cornelius (1585-1638), bishop of Ypres and founder of religious sect bearing his See EDUCATION: Modern: 17th century: France: Jansenist schools; PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS: 1602-1700. name. JANSENISTS, followers of the doctrine of Jansen. See PORT ROYAL AND THE JANSENISTS: 1602-1700; 1702-1715; EDUCATION: Modern: 17th century: France: Jansenist schools; FRANCE: 17561759; 1789: Survey of France on the eve of Revolution: Résumé of causes; FRENCH LITERATURE: 1608-1715; PAVIA: 1774-1790. JANUARY, Edict of (1562). 1560-1563. See FRANCE: JANUS, Temple of. See Temple of Janus. JAPAN Name.-Land and its characteristics.-"The Japanese call their country Nihon (in another form, Nippon) or Dai Nippon, which means 'Great Japan,' the land of the Rising Sun. The chief islands which constitute Japan proper are Honshu, the central and largest (often erroneously called Nippon), Shikoku, Kyushu, and Yezo, separated from each other by narrow straits. The most important islands in close proximity to them are Sado, Tsushima, Oki, and Iki, in the Sea of Japan; the Goto group, and Amakusa, in the Tunghai, Awaji, in the Inland Sea; Tanegashima, and Yakunoshima, in the Pacific. The Japanese possessions also include the Luchu group (Ryukyu), lying to the south-west of Kyushu; Formosa (Taiwan), and the Pescadores (Ho-ko-to), ceded to Japan after the war with China in 1894-5; the southern half of Sakhalin acquired as a result of the war with Russia in 1905; the Kuriles (Chishima), extending in a north-westerly direction from Yezo to Kamchatka, and a vast number of small islands, no less than 487 in all being considered worthy of administrative recognition. The Bonin Islands (Ogasawarajima), a small and unimportant group, lying far off in the southern seas in about 24° N. and 140° E., are also ruled by the Japanese. [In all, Japan holds over 3,000 islands, with a total area of 173,786 square miles. Of these, however, only 600 are inhabited.] The main islands stretch along the east coast of the continent of Asia in the form of a crescent, the northern horn of which turns in towards Siberia, and the southern towards Korea. Between the two flows the Sea of Japan. [The island empire stretches over thirty degrees of latitude for a distance of 2,500 miles. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Japan was given a mandate over the Pacific islands, north of the equator, which before the war had been in the possession of Germany.] The eastern shores of the archipelago are washed by the waters of the North Pacific Ocean, from whose immense depths rise range upon range of imposing volcanic cones. But the islands are not solely of volcanic origin. Many of the higher formations are giant masses of granite overlaid with igneous rocks. Earthquakes, seismicwaves, and an excessively humid climate have contributed, in no small degree, towards giving Japan its characteristic physical features. . . . [Many of the bays and harbours are] capable of sheltering the largest ships. Almost all [the mountain ranges] are luxuriantly wooded, and the numberless valleys winding amongst them are cultivated to the utmost limit. . . . The chief mountain peaks comprise the famous and beautiful Fuji-san (12,400 feet), . . . the Hida-Echu range, with Tateyama, Yariga-take, Ontake, and others, all about 10,000 feet above sea-level. . . . The active volcano of Asama-yama, in the province of Shinshu, attains a height of 8,280 feet. . . . [Kyushu] possesses two notable active volcanoes, Asosan (5,630 feet), rising from the bed of an ancient crater, said to have the largest circumference of any in the world, and Kirishima-yama (5.530 feet). . . . Fully three-fourths of the area of Japan are mountainous, and less than 16 per cent. under cultivation. The rivers mostly partake of the character of They cut their way impetuously through k zorges and wooded ravines until they wer land, where, owing to the detritus m the heights, their beds often several miles. They are rarely ut the shallowest craft, being for the greater part of the year little more than fordable streams. It is only in late summer, after the close of a period of drought, that they assume dangerous proportions, the torrential rains causing them to rise from ten to fifteen feet above their normal height, and spread destruction for many miles around. . . . Japan, at one extreme, lies within the tropics, and at the other, . . . experiences the rigours of arctic cold. The climate of the chief islands is considerably influenced by their proximity to the mainland of Asia and to the Kuroshiwo, an ocean current like the Gulf Stream, which carries the heated waters of the equatorial seas along the east coast of the archipelago, while a branch of the same, entering the Sea of Japan through the Strait of Korea, strikes the north-west coast of the main island. Snow falls in every portion of the main islands, but, except on the west coast and the mountains, does not lie for any length of time. Yezo alone remains snow-bound for several months, and even the sea freezes on a part of its coast. The hottest period is usually from the middle of July to the middle of September."-W. B. Mason, Japan (Mill's international geography, pp. 545-547).-The mountainous character of the islands has had an important effect upon the history of the people. The mountains divide the islands into small valleys and plains, many of them difficult of access to each other, which in early days made progress of ideas from one section of the country to another very slow. This isolation of small sections created a tendency to political division and aided the growth of feudal institutions. But the mountains have had another and gentler influence. The mountain forests, in some sections, have always been carefully conserved, and the beauty of the scenery, varied by mountains, forests, valleys, plains and rivers have fixed a love of beauty in the Japanese mind. (See also CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: Japan: Ancient.) The insular position of Japan has had much to do with her individuality and continuity of development. Although the islands are sufficiently close to the mainland not to prevent communication with it by primitive peoples, they are sufficiently far away to discourage attempts at invasion. It is true that in prehistoric times some at least of the islands were subjected to incursions from the mainland, probably from Siberia, Central Asia, China, Korea and the Malay peninsula. But the Asiatic trend of emigration was westward. There were no early seafarers with the enterprise of the European Northmen to be tempted to cross the narrow seas. It was not until the Middle Ages that an attempt was made by a hostile force to gain a foothold on the islands. Even then only two powers tried seriously to carry out a successful invasion: the Tois, a forgotten tribe from the mainland, and the Mongols, who, in the reign of Kublai Khan, in the thirteenth century, landed a large force on the island of Kyushu, but were defeated. Thus the Japanese were left to work out their internal organization without disruption by outside forces, and there was nothing to prevent them from developing their own peculiar organization, and a national homogeneity, which maifested itself at an early date. But while this insularity permitted the growth of distinct types both of people and government, the nearness of the islands to the mainland forbade complete immunity from outside influences. Korea, in particular, exercised an influence in religion and politics which it is difficult to esti JAPAN Language mate. It is true that the ideas which were imported from Korea came originally from China and India, but before reaching Japan, they had been filtered through the Korean consciousness, and received some of their peculiar cast from the Korean mind. The early culture of Japan then was strongly impregnated by a tinge of Korean thought, which was, however, not sufficiently strong to efface the originality of the Japanese mind. Even at so early a stage in evolution as the seventh century, the nation showed itself as avid of new ideas, and as well able to assimilate them as in the nineteenth century, when it was introduced to the complexities of Western culture, without losing the individuality impressed by the insular character of its territory. This insular character has made the Japanese people a seafaring folk. Moreover, the placid waters of the Inland sea, the number of safe bays and harbors and the proximity of the main islands to one another, promoted a daring habit of life at sea which has stood them in good stead in modern times, and has prompted them to attempt the domination of the commerce of eastern Asia, which their geographical position seems to put within their easy reach. ALSO IN: J. D'Autremer, Japanese empire and its economic conditions, pp. 2-32.-W. Dickson, Japan, PP. 479-482.-Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Japan, Japan in the beginning of the twentieth century, pp. 13-46-E. B. Mitford, Japan's inheritance, pp. 13-37.-G. A. Ballard, Influence of the sea on political history of Japan.-K. S. Latourette, Development of Japan, pp. 1-8. JAPAN cated men in Japan is, it may be safely said, now Language of the country. "The Japanese language is of the Turanian or Oural-Altaic stock, possessing the structural characteristics of all surviving languages that owe their origin to that family-Turkish, Finnish, Tunguisic and Korean. It has the same system of agglutination, under which the roots of words undergo no change and the inflexions of other languages are replaced by particles, affixed to the roots and blended with them only so far as will satisfy the requirements of euphony.. The original vocabulary of Japan, that of her language before she began to feel the influence of China, was entirely her own and presents no affinities to that of any other country in the world save Korea, and in this case the affinities are so slight that the utmost ingenuity of philologists, both English and Japanese, has been required to trace them. Interpreters are not mentioned as having been employed in such communications as took place between the two people in the earliest period of the mythological history of Japan, but when authentic history began, interpreters were found necessary, and there is frequent mention in the Nihongi-the ancient Chronicles of Japan-both of interpreters and of Japanese studying Korean. If, therefore, the vocabularies of both were akin at some very remote period, they soon wandered off in different directions and became so distinct that their affinities are no longer recognisable. . . . Unfortunately, pure Japanese is no longer spoken. The nearest approach to it is in the language used by women, whose speech, at the present day, falls infinitely The cause softer on the ear than that of men. . . . of the decadence of the pure language is the large introduction into it of the monosyllabic vocables of China, which began with the introduction of Chinese civilisation in the sixth and seventh centuries, has continued ever since, and in the present generation has been enormously intensified by the necessity of finding equivalents for the infinite number of new subjects, both abstract and concrete, which Western civilisation has introduced to the knowledge of the people. The language spoken by edu JAPAN Ainus and Japanese of this number, the ability to recognise them at once in all their many forms, or to write them from memory in logical sequence, but a knowledge of from one to two thousand is necessary to enable a student to read either books or newspapers in which most difficult characters are liberally interpreted by Kana interpolations or to write a very simple letter on non-technical subjects, and the difficulty of learning to read or write Japanese may be estimated from the fact that at least six or seven years are exclusively devoted in schools to the teaching of reading and writing to the Japanese themselves."-J. H. Longford, Japan of the Japanese, pp. 128-136. Inhabitants and their origins. Ainus, or Ainos, and Japanese.-Eta.-"In the present population of Japan there are two distinct races, the Ainos and the Japanese. Of the former there is only a small number now remaining in the island of Yezo. The Ainos are probably the original race, who in early times inhabited the Main island down to the Hakone pass and possibly farther to the south. From Japanese history we learn that the military forces of the empire were constantly employed to suppress the disturbances caused by the barbarous people of the north. The hairy people now known as Ainos are almost certainly referred to. The origin of the term Aino is unknown. By the Japanese it is believed to be derived from inu, meaning a dog, and to have been bestowed on them in contempt. The name is not used by the Ainos themselves. In common with the inhabitants of the Kurile islands and the Japanese portion of Saghalien they call themselves Yezo. The number of Ainos in the island of Yezo is given in 1880, . . . as 16,637; and this number is believed to be gradually decreasing. Travellers who have visited them unite in testifying to their great amiability and docility. Physically they are a sturdy and well developed race. The characteristic which has been noticed in them more than any other is the abundant growth of hair. The men have a heavy and bushy head of hair and a full beard which is allowed to grow down to their chests. Other parts of the body are also covered with a growth which far surpasses that of the ordinary races. In the matter of food, clothing, houses and implements, they remain in the most primitive condition. Turning now to the Japanese race which extends from the Kurile islands on the north to the Ryukyu islands on the south, we see at once that it is a mixed race containing widely different elements. Even after the many centuries during which the amalgamation has been going on, we recognize still the varying types to which the individuals tend. In the south more than in the north, and more among the ruling classes than in the laboring classes there are specimens of a delicate, refined appearance, face oval, eyes oblique, nose slightly Roman, and frame delicate but well proportioned. Then there is another type which has been recognized by ail observers. It is found more in the north than the south and is much more common among the laboring population than among the higher classes. The face is broad and the cheek bones prominent. The nose is flat and the eyes are horizontal The frame is robust and muscular, but not so well proportioned and regular as in the former type. These two types with many intervening links are found everywhere. . . . The twofold character of the Japanese race as it is seen at present can best be explained by two extensive migrations from the continent. The first of these migrations probably took place from Korea, whence they landed on the Main island in the province of Izumo. This will account for the mythological JAPAN legends which in the early Japanese accounts cluster to so great an extent around Izumo. It will also explain why it was that when Jimmu Tenno came on his expedition from the island of Kyushu, he found on the Main island inhabitants who in all essential particulars resembled his own forces, with whom he formed alliances. This first migration seems to have belonged to a rougher and more barbarous tribe of the Mongolian race, and has given rise to the more robust and muscular element now found among the people. The second migration may have come across by the same route and landed on the island of Kyushu. They may have marched across the island or skirted around its southern cape and spread themselves out in the province of Hyuga, where in the Japanese accounts we first find them. This migration probably occurred long after the first, and came evidently from a more cultured tribe of the great Mongolian race. That they came from the same race is evident from their understanding the same language, and having habits and methods of government which were not a surprise to the new-comers, and in which they readily co-operated. On the contrary, the ruder trites [of Ainus] at the north of the Main island were spoken of as Yemishi,—that is, barbarians, and recognized from the first as d.fferent and inferior."-D. Murray, Japan, pp. 20-23, 27-30. ALSO IN: K. Hara, Introduction to the history of Japan, pp. 21-49. "In addition to the two distinct races which inhabit the islands of Japan, there is a group of [over a million] outcast people [who] . . . though essentially Japanese, live a miserable existence, worse than that of the ordinary poor and even lower than the criminal. They are the eta-the pariah, the butchers, tanners, and scavengers. . . . Eta villages are not hard to locate. Generally they are somewhat on the outskirts of the main town or city, but often in modern Japanese cities they will be found surrounded by thickly crowded districts. . . . In 1871, after centuries of weary degradation, the eta were officially liberated. . . . [But] racial discrimination has not been eliminated by mere edict. . . . There are several divisions of this low class of people. . . . The name represents no political or religious class, but a social prejudice deeply rooted in the Japanese consciousness. Even some of the most thorough-searching authorities on Japanese history confess they are unable definitely to trace the origin of the eta.. James Murdoch, the historian, gives it as his opinion that the absence of Aino characteristics among the present eta is due to the gradual accession of degraded Japanese into their ranks. Eta cannot be recognized apart from the general type of Japanese. Therefore, for all practical purposes, all studies of eta must be made on the assumption that they are Japanese. Thousands of the Yamato (pure Japanese) have filtered down into that stagnant group, thus leaving the problem Japanese, and not alien." -S. Greenbie, Japan, real and imaginary, pp. 316, 323. Military organization. - Samurai. - Feudal armies.-Beginning of the Shogunate.-Liability to service.-Professional soldiers.-Conscription. Military administration and education.Modern army. See MILITARY ORGANIZATION: 19: Japan; 35. Agriculture. "During twenty-five centuries the chief industry of Japan has been agriculture, and [the great majority] of the population [today] is engaged in farming. Owing to religious prejudices, which have led the people to live largely upon vegetable diet, there has been little or no ac JAPAN Agriculture cumulation of live stock, so that the tiller of the sumption of fruit in Japan has always been limited, JAPAN the fact is that fruit-growing is on the increase, economy sericulture plays almost as important a National government. See JAPAN, CONSTITU |