ITALY, 1921

and the estimated deficit for the present fiscal year of 5,000,000,000, will be reduced to 3,000,000,000 for the fiscal year 1922-1923. This remarkable result should be taken in just consideration for the fact that their budget includes all the expenses deriving from the war, taking also transitory expenses, like reconstruction of invaded and liberated territory and of the Merchant Marine, partially destroyed during the war. For the next financial year is already anticipated a reduction on current expenses for more than 1,000,000,000 lire, following thus the policy of thrift adopted by the Italian Government; in such a way it is possible to effect a further reduction in the deficit."-S. A. Cotillo, Italy during the World War, pp. 148-149.

1921.-Colonial possessions. See AFRICA: Map; BRITISH EMPIRE: Map of the world.

1921

(January-March).-Fascisti and Socialists. "Just as the economic situation, including the seizure of the factories by the workers early last Autumn, was misinterpreted abroad, so now the same thing is happening in regard to the clashes, many of them far from bloodless, which have been taking place between the Communists and the Fascisti, or militant Nationalists. . . . The most tragic conflict took place at Trieste, where a hundred Communists on Jan. 27 took possession of the business and printing plant of the Socialist paper Il Lavoratore, forced out the workers, turned the sheet into a Communist organ, and terrorized the neighborhood with their Red Guard, until, on Feb. 11, the Fascisti, mostly ex-soldiers, rushed the place and left the three-story palace a heap of ruins. The causes of these conflicts were as follows: At the Socialist congresses of Imola, Reggio Emilia and Florence the disciples of Lenin had attempted to throw the party toward the Third International. The crisis came in the middle of January at the Leghorn Congress, where . . . a large majority voted against the Third International, with the expulsion of the Communists from the party. Then the Communists reorganized on the basis of the Third International, the first rule of which is a revolution by force. They began to execute this rule, with the aid of certain labor unions, by calling general strikes, destroying property, and attacking officials. . . . It should not be imagined from the sensational accounts of the conflicts that the country is on the verge of revolution on the contrary, the Nationalist element is growing stronger every day and the revolutionary element weaker. The majority of the people are working hard and doing what they can to pull the country together again, while agitators are too busy in protecting themselves from the Fascisti and fighting among themselves to be as dangerous as they might otherwise be-as dangerous as they appeared to be last Fall."-New York Times Current History, Mar., 1921, pp. 414-415.-"Debates in the Chamber on the bread subsidy and the Government bill for checking up the 'controllo' of the big businesses by the workers continued with gains for Signor Giolitti, the Premier, in the first, and a growing opposition organized and led by his predecessor, Signor Nitti, in the second. There was a project to reduce but not to abolish the bread subsidy, by having two grades of bread, one for the rich and one for the poor, as even the Socialists realized that to continue the subsidy at its present figure would mean national ruin.

In the politico-labor field, the resolutions of the Federation of Labor, adopted at the Leghorn Congress condemning communism and unnecessary strikes, went far toward pacifying the smaller industries not to be affected by the "controllo."

ITALY, 1921

The riots between the Communists and the Fascisti centred in the towns of Tuscany. There, however, early in March, the Communists were reported to have been frightened into obeying the laws, and so the Fascisti marched the streets in vain. In the southern Province of Bari, though, the peasants attempted to do what the metallurgic workers did last Autumn. They seized farms instead of plants. This caused a rising of the Fascisti in the rural districts which was with difficulty put down by the carabinieri."—Ibid., Apr., 1921, p. 183.-"The government made no serious effort to check the Fascisti movement. Indeed, it would have been difficult to repress the Fascisti without at the same time taking the Socialists in hand. To deal with both movements at once would have necessitated the proclamation of martial law. From this drastic measure Mr. Giolitti shrank. . . . His policy was to let the movement wear itself out. . . . He dissolved Parliament. . . . His first thought was to crush the Socialists by giving a free hand to the Fascisti. . . . And his second thought-which requires a still more delicate touch to execute-is to come to an understanding with the much-chastened Socialists, transform them into elements of order, and use them for a legal repression of the Fascisti."-G. Ferrero, Hundred years of Italian life (New York Times Current History, Sept., 1921).

...

1921 (February-March).—Near East conference at London.-Secret pact with Turkey. See TURKEY: 1921 (March-April): Secret treaties.

1921 (May). First elections under universal suffrage. The elections to the 26th Legislature of Italy took place May 15. The crisis had come to test whether the government should continue to abdicate to political theorists and fanatics, or give heed to the demonstrations of the middleclass majority and ask for a new set of lawmakers. By the new electoral law of December 1920 universal suffrage for men and women 21 years of age was to be tried for the first time in Italy. The results of the elections, which were carried out without much disturbance, showed the following distribution of seats: Constitutionalists or Liberal Democrats, 275; Socialists, 122; Catholics (Popolari), 107; Communists, 16; Republicans, 7; Germans, 4; Slavs, 4: total 535. The new constituencies created in the territory acquired from Austria-Hungary added twenty-seven deputies to the former number of 508. It is apparent that whatever may have been the political or social affiliations of the parties which met at the polls, the voters, however classed, represented movements superior to all parties; the one led by the Fascismo for the perpetuation of democratic government, the other led by the Socialists for the destruction of that government and the establishment of a new form in which the proletariat should dominate at communist dictation. The Fascisti reaffirmed the necessity for Italy's entering the war in 1915; they favored the labor movement, so far as it did not clash with the interests of production and national necessaries; and, finally, they wanted Italy to free herself both from Leninism (Bolshevism) and from the thraldom of being dependent on other States for raw materials.

As

a result of their punitive conflicts with the communists on the eve of the election, provincial Prefects had been obliged to remove five Soviet mayors; three had resigned, and over 200 buildings used for treasonable intercourse had been destroyed.

1921 (August).-Invited to the conference on limitation of armaments. See U. S. A.: 1921 (July-August).

1921 (November).—Represented at Portorosa conference. See PORTOROSA CONFERENCE.

1921-1922 (June-February).-Resignation of Giolitti.-Bonomi premier.-Commercial agreement with Soviet Russia.-The new parliament assembled on June 11, when the King's speech was received with much enthusiasm. On the 27th Giolitti's cabinet resigned after obtaining a majority of only thirty-four votes. Signor Ivanoe Bonomi became premier and the Marchese Della Torretta succeeded Count Sforza as foreign minister. "The new premier, in outlining his program before the Chamber, declared that Italy would scrupulously respect her foreign engagements and that the Treaty of Rapallo would be observed to the letter. . . . He also promised the disarmament of all citizens not legally authorized to bear arms. . . . Although the new ministry received an overwhelming vote of confidence on July 23, it gradually lost its grip. A number of factors contributed to its downfall. In the first place, discontent was expressed because of the failure of the Italian delegation at Washington to have Italy included in the Four-Power Pacific Treaty. Secondly, the government's course toward the failure of the Bank of Discount (Banca di Sconto). This institution, one of the largest in Italy, suffered such heavy losses that it suspended payments on December 29. The government at once took steps to protect the bank's creditors, granted a limited moratorium and considered remedial measures for aiding those industries dependent upon the bank. On January 4, however, it was announced that a liquidating court had decreed the sequestration of the private fortunes of the directors of the bank. A third important cause was its alleged pro-Catholic bias. Anti-Catholic groups expressed considerable dissatisfaction on account of the half-masting of flags on public buildings and the sending of a delegation, headed by Minister of Agriculture Mauri, to the Vatican to convey condolences on the occasion of the death of Pope Benedict XV on January 22. On the other hand, Catholic groups were alienated by the failure of the government to have a eulogy of the late Pope read from the tribune of the Chamber as had been promised. Most important of all, perhaps, was the inability of the government to restore order and put an end to the revolutionary outbreaks on the part of Communists and Fascisti alike. The resignation of Premier Bonomi was announced on February 2. After a series of conferences with several ex-premiers, including Orlando, Giolitti and Nitti, and a futile attempt on the part of Orlando to form a coalition cabinet, the King on February 9 [1922] summoned Premier Bonomi, whose resignation he had not yet accepted, to present himself again before Parliament for a vote of confidence. Lack of confidence was expressed on February 17 by a vote of 295 to 107, the Catholic party and the Reformists alonę supporting the ministry; both the Right and the Fascisti voted solidly against it. After a delay of two weeks Signor Luigi Facta, ranked as a pro-Giolitti man, succeeded in forming a new cabinet."-Political Science Quarterlv, 1922, Supplement, pp. 107-108.-"During the whole of 1921 Italy was kept in a state of agitation by the conflicts between the Fascisti and the extremists. Anarchist outrages were not wanting, conspicuous among them being the throwing of a bomb at the Diana Theatre, Milan (March 23) by which twenty people were killed and 100 injured." -Annual Register, 1921, p. 170.-A commercial agreement with Soviet Russia was concluded December 26, containing reciprocal clauses regarding import and export, use of ports by shipping, ab

ITALY, 1921-1922

stention from propaganda, removal of trade barriers, repatriation of Italian nationals from Russia, postal and telegraph communications, avoidance of blockade and boycott, etc. A separate agreement provided for the Italian Red Cross to establish food and medical stations in the famine area of South Russia, to which undertaking the Italian government contributed 6,000,000 lire. The full text of the commercial agreement was published in New York Times Current History, Mar., 1922, p. 1034.

1921-1922 (August-May).-Finance and reconstruction.-Vital statistics.-Fascisti and Communists in conflict.-"By a decree of August 23 the United States dollar, and not the English pound, will in the future be the Italian standard of international payments. The cost of replacing the war ruin wrought in the Asiago and Trentino regions has been placed at 3,000,000,000 lire [francs] at the present rate of exchange. Over 130,000 homes were destroyed; of these 50,000 have been rebuilt. It is estimated that it will require two years to complete the task. According to figures given out by the government Statistics Bureau on April 14 [1922], Italy's population on December 1 totaled 38,835,174 including 1,564,691 persons in the redeemed provinces. The increase over the census of 1911, excluding the redeemed populations, amounted to 7.5 per cent. The bitter struggle waged between the Fascisti and Communists throughout the greater part of . . . [1921] subsided somewhat during the first weeks of the Bonomi ministry. The last months of 1921, however, witnessed a recrudescence of violence. In November the Fascisti definitely constituted themselves a political party, extremely national in spirit and principle and pledged to uphold middleclass ideals. In domestic affairs they advocate liberty of contract, coöperation between capital and labor, the establishment of a stabilized class of peasant proprietors, the suppression of the free commune, the centralization of power, and war upon communism. In international affairs they stand for an aggressive foreign policy, the seizure of the eastern shores of the Adriatic, the annexation of Fiume, the Italianization of the annexed areas, and the consistent pursuit of an imperialistic policy in the Mediterranean to benefit the agrarian and commercial interests of the mother country. A new organization, the Arditi del polo, composed of extreme Socialists, Communists and radical Catholics, and pledged to violent reprisals against the Fascisti, has grown rapidly in numbers and in power. In addressing Parliament on March 17 [1922] Premier Facta announced that the government would restore order impartially between the two warring factions. It was unjust, he declared, to allow a part of the citizenry to disturb the rights of the rest. On the same day it was announced that one thousand Fascisti had been arrested and that disorderly Communist elements were being apprehended. Despite these efforts on the part of the government, trouble still continued between the two factions. As the result of serious street fighting in Rome on May 24, twenty-one persons were wounded. During the following week members of both organizations were killed or wounded in Genoa, Bologna, Trieste, Alessandria and Parma.. Permits to carry guns were withdrawn in both the city and province of Rome and in Florence. In the latter city 65,000 Fascisti assembled during the last of May; wire communication with the outside world was cut off, and surrounding villages, controlled by Socialists and Communists, were bombed or burned and Socialist or Communist mayors everywhere forced

ITALY, 1921-1922

1922 (March).-Troops ordered into Fiume with a view to executing terms of Rapallo Treaty. See FIUME: 1922.

with

1922 (March-September).-Relations Greece. Search of vessels.-Fears growth of Greek power in eastern Mediterranean. See GREECE: 1922 (January-March); 1922 (AugustSeptember).

1922 (April-May).-Represented at Genoa conference. See GENOA CONFERENCE (1922). 1922 (June-July). Represented at Allied Economic conference at The Hague. See HAGUE (ALLIED) CONFERENCE (1922).

1922 (June-August).-Financial and economic problems. Cabinet reconstruction.-Spread of Fascismo.-Mussolini's statement of Fascista program. During June it was reported that a special agreement was being negotiated with Great Britain regarding Italy's position in the Mediterranean. The government was also said to be especially anxious to arrange for Italian emigration to British colonies, in view of the recent restrictions on immigration in the United States. The condition of the national finances was far from promising; the war had saddled the country with heavy burdens. On July 6 a budget deficit of 4,000,000,000 lire for 1922-1923 was forecast. In addition, some half-a-million men-mostly exsoldiers were out of employment; remedial measures were taken in the shape of public works involving an enormous outlay. On July 8 the lower chamber elected the four ex-premiers, Giolitti, Orlando, Nitti and Bonomi, to be members of the Foreign Affairs Committee. Meanwhile, the Facta cabinet was severely shaken by the sporadic disturbances of the Fascisti; a charge of failing to pacify the country resulted in an adverse vote expressing lack of confidence in the government on July 20. Two former premiers attempted but failed to form a new cabinet and on August I premier Facta stepped back into office with a reconstructed coalition cabinet. Fascisti violence continued unabated with many deaths and wounded. In July they took Viterbo, Cremona and Alatri; in Cremona they wrecked the Bolshevist headquarters, a communist printing plant and the houses of two Socialist deputies. The government sent 500 troops who, however, were unable to stem the tide of Fascismo. The activities of that movement in Ravenna provoked a strike of all the labor unions in Rome, which began on August 1 and lasted only three days, thanks to government intervention. Many cities were terrorized by the Fascisti; they stormed the municipal building of

ITALY, 1922

Milan, occupied Ancona and broke a strike there in progress. Battles were fought in the streets; in Genoa a conflict occurred between them and the communist faction, Arditi del Popolo. Taddei, the minister of the interior, extended military law to six provinces, Genoa, Milan, Parma, Ancona, Leghorn and Brescia. On August 8 Mussolini "instructed the Secretary General of the organization to order by telegraph the demobilization of the Fascisti throughout Italy. A manifesto declared that the Fascisti had won on every front, and that they had protected the workers' legitimate interests, abolished the general strike for ever, and defeated subversive elements. It urged all Fascisti to prepare for the greater battle which will crown our work."-New York Times Current History, Sept., 1922, p. 1086.-"Toward the middle of August some 12,000 workmen of the Port of Genoa . . . after ousting the Socialist officials there, joined the ultra-Nationalists, and 2,000 more at Sarana asked for membership. The longest step in this direction, however, and one considered of great political importance, was taken by the Syndicate of Italian Railwaymen, which decided on Aug. 21 to abandon its alliance with labor and socialism in favor of a Nationalist orientation. While the Socialists and Communists raged, the Fascisti encouraged the new movement, and Signor Mussolini. . . promised a complete change of the organization's attitude toward the Labor Confederation if it abandoned the Socialist Party. In line with the Fascista occupation of the Port of Genoa, the embattled super-patriots stormed and occupied the Port of Naples late in August, under the leadership of Captain Padovani. A number of ships in the harbor were also seized. Numerous clashes with the police occurred. In consequence of this situation, the Government on Aug. 22 ordered a complete military occupation of the port. Another manifestation of Fascista aggressiveness was given on Sept. 1, when 4,000 of these partisans assembled from various points and seized the town of Terni, forty-nine miles northeast of Rome, by scaling the city wall. Having forced entrance, they compelled the manager of the steel works there to reopen the shops, which had been closed for two months owing to a wage dispute."-Ibid, Oct., 1922, p. 160.-On August 27 Mussolini declared at Levanto that the Fascisti must form "the aristocracy of the Italian workers." Their program, he said, was a very simple "We wish to govern Italy. When the hour comes, the Fascisti will spring up as one man for the last and decisive battle, the goal of which is Rome. But we do not wish to occupy the Italian city, with its priests, its antiquities and its ministries. By Rome we mean the capital of the nation, which must become a beacon of the Mediterranean, which must be guided by us as the vanguard of civilization for the greatness and prosperity of Italy and for the peace of Europe."

one.

1922

(August-September).-Austria favors economic union with Italy.-The desperate situation of Austria, hovering on the verge of bankruptcy and lacking elementary necessaries of life, formed the subject of a conference at Verona on August 24 between an Austrian delegation headed by Chancellor Seipel, and the Italian Foreign Minister Schanzer. Unable to struggle by herself from the meshes of economic ruin into which the war had led her, Austria needed the support of a stronger nation. Three alternatives presented themselves (1) a union with Germany, absolutely prohibited by the Allies in the Treaty of Versailles; (2) union with the Little Entente-Ru

mania, Jugo-Slavia and Czecho-Slovakia, resolutely opposed by Italy to the point of threatening to make such a step a casus belli; or (3) a union with the Italian kingdom. Two of the three avenues being thus closed to them, the Austrians favored entering into a customs and economic union with Italy. Signor Schanzer declared that the scheme would have to be submitted to the decision of the League of Nations. Early in September the League appointed a committee to formulate a plan for Austrian relief.

1922

(October-December).-Mussolini, Fascista leader. - Fall of Facta government. Fascismo sweeps the country.-King Victor Emmanuel refuses to sanction military law.-Mussolini premier.-Strong Fascista government."Only three years ago Italy was in a state of chaos, she was heading straight for revolution, and there seemed to be no power on earth that could stop her. What must be borne well in mind, however, is that all these excesses, all these murders, all these intimidations, all this talk of revolution, were the work cf a slender minority in the country. A few resolute revolutionaries were imposing their will upon the great mass of the population by violence. . . . Bad as this state of affairs was, it was rendered even worse by the inaction of the Government. Cabinet after Cabinet went to power and calmly stood by while the revolutionaries burned, murdered and pillaged, occupied factories and seized estates, trampled upon the national flag and hoisted the red flag in its stead. During all this period, in which energetic action was imperative, the Government did nothing but yield to each and every new Socialist and Communist demand. Gradually the conviction gained strength that it was useless to look to the Government for relief; that if right was to triumph the ordinary citizen must take the law into his own hands. . . The Communists were masters of Italy. Amid the darkness of impending revolution there was one ray of light. This ray of light was represented by Signor Benito Mussolini and his newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia. [The son of a blacksmith], Signor Mussolini, before the war, was himself a Socialist. . . . When the war broke out, however, he said, 'I am a Socialist, but before being a Socialist I am an Italian. I am against war, but now that my country is at war I know that it is better to win than to lose.' He enlisted in the Italian army and fought with bravery and distinction. When peace was declared, he remained aghast at the abyss toward which the preaching of revolution was dragging his country. ... With great danger to his life he began to preach the gospel of patriotism. . . . Gradually his teachings bore fruit; the healthy and sane elements in the country rallied round him and acclaimed him as their leader. Eventually he felt strong enough to stem-with deeds, rather than words-the advancing tide of Bolshevism. Helped by only about 150 fearless men, the first Fascisti, he descended into the streets and, arms in hand, fought the subversives wherever he could find them."-A. Cortesi, Tide that swept Italy's Fascisti to power (New York Times Current History, Jan., 1923, p. 568).-Having succeeded in crushing the Socialist and "Red" propaganda, the Fascisti proceeded upon the task of Italianizing the Trentino provinces acquired from Austria. Several thousands of their number marched into Trent and Bolzano early in October and occupied those cities. They closed up the German schools, dissolved the local police and demanded the resignation of the royal high commissioner of the Trentino for neglect of duty. The depleted ranks of the Socialists

ITALY, 1922

opened a congress in Rome on October 2 to frame their future policy. But their hold upon the public was gone; a reaction had set in and many Socialists went over to the Fascisti. On October 23, some 90,000 Fascisti, of whom 40,000 were on a military footing, paraded before Mussolini through the streets of Naples. The demonstration was orderly enough. The Fascisti opened a three days' congress in the city on the 24th, at which Mussolini declared that, in furtherance of their plan to rule Italy, the Fascisti must hold the portfolios of foreign affairs, war, navy, labor and public works. On the 26th Mussolini called together all the military leaders of the organization and simultaneously ordered all the military sections of the Fascisti to hold in readiness the

800,000 workers who had joined their ranks, in order to coöperate at an opportune moment with the military sections. On his departure from Naples Mussolini exclaimed, "I take a solemn oath that either the government of the country must be given peacefully to the Fascisti or we will take it by force." The Facta ministry resigned on the 26th, though it continued to exercise administrative functions for two days longer. On the 27th Facta invited Mussolini (then in Milan) to come to Rome to discuss the possibility of an agreement between the government and the Fascisti. The invitation does not appear to have been accepted. On the 28th the cabinet issued the following proclamation: "Seditious movements having manifested themselves in certain provinces in Italy, having as their object the interruption of the normal functions of the state's powers and calculated to plunge the country into grave trouble, the government has as far as possible tried every

ITALY, 1922

means of conciliation in the hope of re-establishing peace and reaching a peaceful solution of the crisis. In the face of such insurrectionary attempts, it is the duty of the retiring Government, by all means, at whatever cost, to maintain law and order, and this duty it will carry out to the full in order to safeguard the citizens and free constitutional institutions. It is the Government's expectation that the citizens will remain calm and have confidence in the measures taken for their safety. Long live Italy! Long live the King!" The cabinet first decided to issue a proclamation declaring a state of siege in all the provinces. Martial law was actually declared, but was rescinded later in the day; the King had refused to sanction such a drastic step. The Facta cabinet finally abdicated the same afternoon. Meanwhile, reports were coming into the capital that the Fascisti were taking possession of several of the chief cities of Northern and Central Italy and deposing the authorities almost without any resistance being offered. Excitement ran high; Giolitti, Orlando and Salandra were all mentioned as possible successors to Facta, though from a constitutional point of view the premiership should fall upon the leader of the party which had provoked the crisis, and that man was Mussolini. "All possible combinations seemed hopeless in view of the dominating personality of Mussolini and his large and well organized battalions, which had virtually seized the whole of Italy. Seeing no other alternative, King Victor Emmanuel bowed to the power and dynamic will of the Fascisti and sent an invitation to Mussolini to come to Rome and form his own Ministry. . . . On receiving the invitation, Mussolini went from Milan to Lake Garda, where he consulted Gabriele d'Annunzio, and subsequently left Milan for Rome on a special train placed at his disposal by the King. . . . The next scene of this political and national drama was enacted with the arrival of Mussolini at Rome on Oct. 30. [The military having torn up some sections of railway lines to prevent the Fascisti from entraining to the capital], the Fascisti leader was met at Civita Vecchia by the King's private motor car, in which he proceeded to Rome. His progress was slow because of the thousands of Fascisti soldiers marching to Rome, encumbering the roads and constantly stopping the leader's car to greet him with acclamations. On arriving in the Eternal City, Mussolini, wearing a soiled black shirt and bearing obvious traces of his long journey went to the Quirinal Palace and was immediately ushered into the King's presence. A half hour's earnest conversation ensued, interrupted at frequent intervals by the frenzied cheers of a huge throng which had gathered under the windows of the palace. . . . After the interview Mussolini drove to his hotel. Several thousands in the square before the hotel were kept in check by Fascisti and Government police. Mussolini appeared at a window and addressed the people in loud, clear accents, saying: 'Today Italy has not only a Cabinet, but a Government, a strong Government, such as she has needed for many years past, but never obtained.' A stormy scene of unrestrained jubilation followed."-Italy's bloodless revolution (New York Times Current History, Dec., 1922, p. 390).— Within a few hours the composition of the new cabinet was announced. The little group of twentyfive Fascisti in the Chamber could not furnish a cabinet among themselves, hence two chief heroes of the World War, General Diaz and Admiral Thaon di Revel, accepted the portfolios of War and Navy. Mussolini took for himself the Interior and Foreign offices. There were but four

ITALY, 1923

other Fascisti in the cabinet, or five altogether, the remainder being Nationalists, one Democrat and one Roman Catholic. On October 31 the Fascisti forces were ordered to demobilize and return to their homes. Fifty trains were required to convey them. The Chamber of Deputies met on November 16, when Mussolini, in his initial address, threw down the gauntlet to that body and indicated in unmistakable terms that he was not there to ask favors but to receive them. He outlined the government's proposals for internal reforms and its foreign policy. Though the Fascisti deputies numbered only thirty-one out of over 500, Mussolini exhibited no apologetic tone as was the custom of his predecessors when operating with coalition forces. To use his own word, he simply "exacted" a vote of confidence. On November 25, voting 225 to 90, the Italian Chamber granted Mussolini and his cabinet full power to adopt any bureaucratic or financial reforms desired up to December 31, 1923. A Fascisti branch was organized in Paris on November 30, under the direction of Nicola Bonservizi, delegate of the Central Committee of the Fascisti Party, the avowed aim being to unite Italians for the defence of Italian interests and to spread Italian art, science and culture by intensive propaganda. Early in December Mussolini's newspaper in Milan published an obviously inspired warning to the press of Italy in general and that of Rome in particular that the government would muzzle the newspapers if they continued to publish misleading and false news. "The triumphant progress of Fascismo was recorded in the Milan municipal elections on Dec. 11, when the so-called reconstructionists won a complete victory over the Socialists, Maximalists and Communists by 85,000 to 65,000 votes; and in an uninterrupted series of Fascisti victories in the provinces of Ferrara, Modena, Forli, Venetia and Umbria, in many instances capturing every seat on Municipal Councils. In the interest of good public order the City of Alessandria performed a municipal feat declared to have been without parallel in abolishing in less than two weeks drunkenness and all manner of crime. . . . A thieves' congress was called, at which all shades of wrongdoers were warned that the cudgel . . . awaited them unless they immediately reformed. For a day and a night the Fascisti made good their word with the cudgel, and crime was at an end, for the time being, at Alessandria. On the other hand, violent Communist opposition to the methods of the Fascisti was displayed at Turin on Dec. 19, when ten persons were killed and many wounded in serious rioting. On Dec. 23 King Victor Emmanuel signed an amnesty decree covering all civil and military crimes committed 'in connection with national movements or aims' and also crimes caused by disturbances due to economic or social causes." -New York Times Current History, Feb., 1923, p. 875.

1922 (December).-Represented at London conference on reparations. See GERMANY: 1922 (December).

1922-1923.-Represented. at Near East conference to settle Greco-Turkish crisis. See NEAR EAST CONFERENCE.

1923 (January).-Represented at Paris reparations conference. See GERMANY: 1923 (January).

See also ARCHITECTURE: Renaissance: Italy; CHARITIES: Italy; CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: Italy; COÖPERATION: Italy; DEBTS, PUBLIC: Italy; EDUCATION: Modern developments: 20th century: Workers' education: Italy; Evening schools: Italy; EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL: Italy;