ively, but a man may be so superfluously critical of others as to intimidate himself. As a matter of fact, the severest critics are often feeble performers. It is easier to destroy, or to find fault with, than to build.

88. How Criticism should be practiced.—In the criticism of a production, we should first ascertain its object, and approve or disapprove that according to our judgment. We should next consider its general drift of character, its strength or feebleness, and whether or not it has attained its purpose. Then it may be examined with reference to its general appropriateness of style of thought, of language, of illustration, of adaptation-and, in fact, with reference to any actual or desirable quality. Honest criticisms are valuable, and to criticise exhaustively is a rare art.

89. The Cultivation of Taste.—Taste may be cultivated by familiarity with productions that have borne the test of examination, and are generally approved, by reading critical writings, by making criticisms, and by rigid adherence to rules in our own productions.

90. An Example of Criticism.-Would it not encumber this book too largely, some specimens of long productions would here be inserted and criticised, but perhaps space may be saved by selecting some book with which all are familiar. Take, then, the Book of Job in the Bible, and examine it simply as a literary document.

What is its object? Evidently to present the life and character of Job.

But why present his life? Evidently because it was very extraordinary, illustrating most signally the

fact that a good man may suffer intensely and for a long time, and yet, if he preserves his integrity, in the end he will be delivered, and his integrity rewarded. The object, then, is good, the theme is sublime.

The structure of the book is dramatic, all the characters introduced are noble, and even the Deity is represented as speaking. The style is, therefore, appropriately elevated and dignified.

Observe the simplicity of the introduction, the conciseness and rapidity of the narrative awakening intense interest. When other characters come to be introduced, observe how each preserves his own personal style, and that at the last, previous to the closing up of the narrative, the thoughts and expressions attributed to God are the sublimest ever uttered, and in the most appropriate phrase.

This criticism is indeed entirely eulogistic, and but faintly expresses the opinion of every competent judge of the Book of Job, simply as a rhetorical production.

91. Exaggeration a common Fault.-A common fault in earnest writers is an over-statement of a thought, which should especially be avoided in deliberative, sober productions. We think that Dr. Whately is open to this charge in the second paragraph of Part IV. of his Rhetoric, on Elocution. He says:

"Probably not a single instance could be found of any one who has attained, by the study of any system of instruction that has hitherto appeared, a really good delivery; but there are many-probably nearly as many as have fully tried the experiment—who have by this means been totally spoiled; who have fallen irrecoverably into an affected style of spouting, worse, in all respects, than their original mode of delivery."

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Dr. Whately was really too strong a writer to resort to such extravagant and illogical statements as this.

Criticism is often unappreciative and superficial, even when it assumes to be profound and magisterial. A mere mathematician can not properly criticise a poem, nor a mere book-worm an oration. Some speakers will attract large audiences in spite of the violation of many rules of elocution, and some writings will press themselves into extreme popularity in spite of condemnation and ridicule by the critical profession. A truly wise critic will discern the true elements of power in such cases, and make his exposure of the unnecessary defects and blemishes so much the more instructive and efficient.

CHAPTER XII.

STYLE MODIFIED BY THE NATURE OF THE PRODUCTION.

92. The Four Objects of Writers and Speakers.-ALL the objects of authors may be reduced to these four: to instruct, convince, persuade, and amuse. Some productions may be designed to accomplish several of these objects, some only one; but nearly all have a leading purpose, belonging to one of these four classes.

93. Didactic Productions.-Writings, the prime object of which is to instruct, may be called didactic, such as text-books describing any science or art, lawbooks, scientific treatises, cyclopædias, many books of travels, guide-books, reports of investigating committees, deeds, and many other legal papers. In didactic writings perspicuity is particularly essential, and ornament is generally superfluous. Lord Brougham says on this subject:

"I have been somewhat mortified of late years at perceiving a tendency to fine writing and declamation among our men of science, and I ascribe it, in some degree, to the more general diffusion of scientific knowledge, which naturally introduces the more popular style of composition. *** In truth, however, that vile florid style darkens instead of illustrating; and while we can never write too clearly to the people, we never can write too simply, if our design be to write plainly and intelligibly. * * * I have seen a mathematical discussion, by a very able and learned man, in two consecutive pages of which I reckoned

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up above twenty metaphors-all tending to darken the subject, to say nothing of poetical quotations without mercy."

tion.

Disraeli well remarks that such writings admit of but little ornament, but the attention may be relieved by introducing other thoughts, suggested by associaAs a good example of this, he refers to a work of Dr. Arbuthnot on "Coins, Weights, and Measures," which he has managed to make interesting as well as instructive, by such remarks as that "the polite Augustus, the emperor of the world, had neither any glass in his windows, nor a shirt to his back."

Lord Stanley, President of the Statistical Section of the British Scientific Association, remarked: "You can all say what you have to say in a few words if will think it over beforehand. In addressing an educated audience, a good deal may be taken for granted."

you

94. Logical Productions.-When the object of the writer is to convince, the rules of logic must be observed, and the graces of style must be subordinate to strength and correctness of thought.

Reports of committees, pleas, controversial articles, defenses against charges, and other purely argumentative productions, belong to this class.

95. Persuasion.-Persuasion, which is designed to add to conviction an impulse toward action, may make use of all the graces and arts of composition, according to the ability and judgment of the author. Ad

* Dialogues on Instinct; with an Analytical View on the Researches on Fossil Osteology, by Henry, Lord Brougham, F.R.S., etc. (Philadelphia), pp. 90, 91.