cient Culdees, by whom they were used, not for purposes of superstition, but as centres whence were diffused civilization and knowledge over the whole surrounding country. The principal abbey belong and in addition to that important institution, there were branch establishments at Abernethy, Dunkeld, St. Andrews, Dunblane, Brechin, Dunfermline, Scone, and various other places. Dr. Jamieson tells us, that the Culdee fraternities were in process of time displaced by Roman Catholics, who planted three canons regular of the Augustinians, as being nearest to the Culdees in point of discipline and regulation. Colonies of monks were now introduced in great numbers from England and the Continent. But of all the kings that have ever reigned in Scotland, David I. was the most active in rearing and endowing abbeys. Under his patronage, and at his expense, monastic establishments were planted in every district of the country, and richly endowed, not only with the teinds or tithes of parishes, but also with liberal grants of land from the royal domains. The example of the monarch was followed by many of the nobility. Abbeys were built both in the large towns and in the rural districts. So that it is stated that before the Reformation there were in all about 260 abbeys or conventual establishments in Scotland. The most important of these were Dunfermline, Kelso, Arbroath, Kilwinning, Holyrood, Jedburgh, and Inchaffray, Melrose, Newbattle, Dryburgh, Paisley, and Crossraguel. The wealth of these abbeys was enormous, and the lands belonging to them were the richest and most fertile in the whole country. Their superiors ranked with the nobles of the land, and very frequently rose to the highest civil dignities in the kingdom. The wealth of the abbey of St. Andrews alone amounted to £10,000 per annum, an enormous income in those days. lating to particular convents are determined in conventual chapters; such as respect the whole order are considered in general congregations. Abbeys in their first institution were the offspring of Christian munificence and devotion; but in the more corrupting to the Culdees was built on the island of Iona, ages of the church numberless evils arose out of these societies. In Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and other countries where the monastic life had its origin, no abbeys or monasteries were judged necessary; the monks lived separate, without being combined into a society or congregated under one roof. It was not till the fourth century that the plan of a regular confraternity of monks, dwelling together in one monastery, was proposed by Pachomius, a disciple of Anthony, an Egyptian monk, and the reputed founder of the monastic system. So rapidly did the rage for the secluded life of a monk spread throughout society, that in Egypt alone, at the death of Pachomius, A. D. 348, there were no fewer than 76,000 males and 27,000 females who had embraced the monastic life. Still, up to the middle of the sixth century monasticism had not been reduced to a regular system. About that period, however, A. D. 529, Benedict of Nurcia instituted a new order of monks, and built a monastery which still exists at Monte Casino near Naples. The strictness with which the monks of this order were organized and disciplined came to be imitated throughout Europe generally. The number of monasteries was multiplied, and the great and the wealthy lavished their treasures in support of them, thinking thereby to obtain the benefit of the prayers of those who were the inmates of such institutions. Each abbey or monastery usually consisted of three principal apartments, the oratory or chapel, where the monks assemble for prayer or public worship; the refectory, where they eat their meals together; and the dormitory or sleeping apartment, which was generally situated in the upper part of the building and divided into separate cells or bed-rooms for each monk. Besides these, the large abbeys usually contained a cloister or central apartment in which the monks were wont to meet at particular hours; the library or chartulary, where the books and records were deposited; the apartments of the superior, and other smaller rooms. Abbeys were early introduced into Britain, and❘ many of them were richly endowed, and, by the donations and bequests of the wealthy, became possessed not only of large sums of money but of landed property of great value and extent. The frequency and amount of these bequests gave rise to the statutes against gifts in mortmain, which prohibited donations to these religious houses. Abbeys were at length totally abolished in England by Henry VIII. and their revenues seized by the crown. There were 190 such religious houses dissolved at that time, thus putting the crown in possession of nearly £3,000,000. By this arrangement the abbey-lands became vested in the Crown. In Scotland, the first abbeys belonged to the an At the Reformation many of the most magnificent abbeys and priories in Scotland fell a prey to the fury of the multitude, whose hatred of Romanism was intense and bitter. The lands, tithes, and other possessions belonging to the abbeys, the Protestant ministers sought to appropriate chielly to educational and charitable purposes. Their benevolent and patriotic designs, however, were frustrated by the nobles, who, after setting apart a third for the maintenance of Protestant ministers, churches, and schools, quietly seized the rest for their own use. The lay nobility who had succeeded many of them in obtain. ing the office of commendatory abbots and priors of the different convents, retained in their own possession the property of the monastic orders. Five of the richest abbeys in the kingdom, Melrose, Kelso, St. Andrews, Holyrood, and Coldingham, in this way fell into the hands of the five illegitimate sons of King James V., who had made them commendators of these monastic establishments. Others of them reverted to the Crown, and were bestowed by ABBOT. James VI. on his favourites and flatterers, and from these sources many of our nobility derive both their titles and estates. On the Continent at the Reformation, the abbeys, instead of being demolished as too often happened in Britain, were turned to pious and charitable uses, being converted into hospitals for the sick or educational establishments for the young. Though the suppression of the abbeys, when considered in a religious and political point of view, could not be other than beneficial, it is not to be denied that these institutions while they existed were productive of no little good. Literature as well as religion found a refuge there in times of turbulence. In them were laid up, as in a storehouse, valuable manuscripts and historical records which would otherwise have perished. To them we are indebted for much important historical information both as regards our own and other countries. In the dark ages the abbeys were the only seats of learning, whether of a secular or a religious nature. See MoNACHISM, MONASTERY. ABBOT, the father or superior of an abbey or monastery, the name being evidently derived from the Syriac word Abba, father. In the Greek church, they are termed Hegumenoi, presidents and Archimandrites, rulers of the sheepfolds. At first they were laymen, and subject to the bishops and ordinary pastors. At length, however, being many of them men of learning and talent, they aspired to be independent of the bishops, and succeeded in obtaining the title of lord, with other badges of episcopal dignity, particularly the mitre. Hence arose a class of abbots who were distinguished by the title of mitred abbots, who exercised episcopal authority, and were exempt from the jurisdiction of the bishop. Others received the name of crosiered abbots, from bearing the crosier or pastoral staff; others were styled æcumenical or universal abbots, in imitation of the patriarch of Constantinople; and others were called cardinal abbots, as being superior to all other abbots. The only distinction among abbots which is at present known in Roman Catholic countries, is into regular and commendatory, the former taking the vow and wearing the habit of their order; and the latter being seculars, though bound to take orders when arrived at the proper age. The power of the abbots over the monks among whom they presided was supreme, and in case of wilful transgression or disobedience, on the part of any of the inmates of the convent, they were authorized to inflict both spiritual and temporal punishments, the one including the censures of the church, suspension from the privilege of receiving the eucharist, and as a last resource, excommunication; the other including whipping and expulsion from the monastery. The abbots were at one period of great repute in the church. They were often summoned to eccleziastical councils, and allowed to sit and vote there 5 in the quality of presbyters. But while such honours were in many cases bestowed upon them, the abbots were always understood to be strictly subject to the bishop of the diocese. And yet the ancient historian Bede informs us, that, in one case at least among the Culdees, a presbyter abbot ruled a whole province, and received the implicit obedience of the bishop. And in one of the canons cited by the same historian, it is decreed that the bishops who are monks shall not wander from one monastery to another without leave of their abbot, but continue in that obedience which they promised at the time of their conversion. And it cannot be denied, that, from the fifth century, there were frequent cases both in the Eastern and Western churches, of monasteries being entirely exempt from episcopal visitation. At the Reformation in England, when, by order of Henry VIII., the monasteries were dissolved, there appears to have been a considerable number of abbots, Bishop Burnet says twenty-eight, who had obtained the dignity of mitred abbots, and who sat and voted in the House of Lords. An abbot can scarcely, in strict ecclesiastical language, be said to be ordained, but rather blessed into his office. The benediction is performed by a bishop, with the assistance of two abbots. Both the person who consecrates, and the candidate for consecration, are obliged previously to fast, and a solemn mass is said. On the credence table near the altar the monastic habits of the abbot-elect are laid. The abbot-elect now presents himself to the bishop, accompanied by the abbots-assistant, and delivers the apostolical letters authorizing his election. The bishop then blesses the habit in which the abbot is to be dressed, praying over it, and sprinkling it with holy water. If the abbot-elect has not previously been a monk, he goes through the ceremonies of admission into the order. (See MONK.) He then takes the oath of allegiance to the Papacy, which is succeeded by an examination consisting of the following questions proposed, and answers audibly given: "1. Wilt thou persevere in thy holy purpose, and keep the rule of St. N. and diligently train thy subjects to do the same? Ans. I will. "2. Wilt thou refrain from all that is evil, and, with God's help, as far as thou art able, change thy life to all that is good? Ans. I will. "3. Wilt thou, with God's help, keep chastity, sobriety, humility, and patience thyself, and teach thy subjects the same? Ans. I will. "4. Wilt thou keep faithfully the goods of the monastery committed to thy charge, and distribute them to the uses of the Church, the brethren, the poor, and the pilgrims (strangers)? Ans. I will. "5. Wilt thou always devoutly and faithfully render in all things faith, subjection, obedience and reverence, to our holy Mother the Church of Rome, to our most holy Lord N. supreme Pontiff and his successors? Ans. I will." An additional oath of submission to the bishop is then administered if necessary. But such oath is not uniformly taken, as some abbots hold directly of the Roman see, and others of the bishop, and under his jurisdiction. Then follows the mass celebrated by the bishop and the abbot-elect, each apart, after which comes the Preface, in the course of which the bishop lays both his hands upon the head of the candidate, thus making him an abbot by the imposition of hands, a ceremony which has been already noticed in the article ABBESS: which see. The rule of his order is next presented to him, after which the bishop blesses the pastoral staff, and gives it to him saying, "Receive the staff of the pastoral office that the society committed to thee may carry it before thee, and that, in correcting their faults, thou mayest be mercifully severe, and when angry mayest be mindful of mercy." The ring is then blessed and presented to him in token of his espousal to God, and to holy mother Church. He now presents to the bishop, in a kneeling posture, two large lighted candles, two loaves, and two barrels of wine, reverently kissing his hand. The communion having been administered, if he be a mitred abbot, the mitre is blessed and put upon his head, this being according to the Pontifical, the helmet of salvation, representing also the two horns of the two Testaments, whose enemies he is preparing to combat. The gloves are now blessed and presented to him, after which he is enthroned in the seat of his predecessor, or if the benediction does not take place in the monastery, he is placed on the faldstool; he receives the pastoral staff in his left hand, and has the care of the monastery formally and solemnly intrusted to him. The ceremonial closes with the kiss of peace, and the salutation of the monks now under his charge. The abbot having thus been installed into his office, goes round with his assistants and blesses the people. See MONACHISM-MON ASTERY. ABBUTO, one of the idols worshipped in Japan. It is noted for curing many inveterate diseases, and also for procuring a favourable wind and a quick passage at sea. To propitiate this god, accordingly, Japanese sailors and passengers generally tie some small pieces of coin to sticks, and cast them from the vessel into the sea by way of an offering to Abbuto; but his priests contrive to pick up the coins for their own use, while they persuade the people that the offerings have been accepted by the god. Nay, it often happens that the god Abbuto, dressed up like one of his priests, comes in a boat to demand this offering, and he remains near the shore till the ship is out of sight of land. ABDALS, a name given to a very peculiar class of men among the Mohammedans, who derive their name from being wholly devoted to God. They are also called Santons, and by Ricault, they are termed Calenders or Calenderans. They go bareheaded, and with naked legs, half covered with the skin of a | | | bear, or some other wild beast, having a leathern girdle about the waist, from which hangs a bag. Some of them have about the middle of their bodies a copper-serpent, bestowed upon them by their doctors as a mark of learning. Their opinions are of a very dangerous character, totally subversive of all good order in society, holding as they do that all actions are indifferent; and that God is served in the haunts of the profligate as much as in the mosques. They carry in their hands a kind of club, which they use as conjurors do their rods. They chiefly employ themselves in wandering about, selling relics, as the hair of Mahomet and other articles, calculated to deceive the superstitious and weakminded. ABECEDARIAN HYMNS. In the fourth century, hymns which received this name were composed in imitation of the acrostic poetry of the Hebrews, in which each verse or each part commenced with the first and succeeding letters of the alphabet in their order. Augustine composed a hymn or psalm of this kind against the Donatists, for the common people to learn, and, in imitation of the 119th Psalm, he divided it into so many parts, according to the order of the letters of the alphabet. Hence these psalms were called Abecedarii, each part having its proper letter at the head of it, and the hypopsalma, or answer, to be repeated at the end of every part of it, not by canonical singers, but by the whole body of the congregation, who seem to have had generally a share in the psalmody of the ancient Christian church. See MUSIC (SACRED). ABELIANS, or ABELITES, a small and shortlived Christian sect, which is mentioned by Augustine as having risen in the diocese of Hippo, in Africa, in the fourth century. They derived their name from Abel, the son of Adam, who, they alleged, though married, had lived in a state of continence. This example they sought to imitate; and, accordingly, it is represented that every man married a female child, and every woman a little boy, with whom they lived, and whom they made their heirs, imagining that in this way they fulfilled literally what Paul says (1 Cor. vii. 29), that "they that have wives be as though they had none." This sect, entertaining notions so absurd, could not be expected to be of long continuance. We are informed, accordingly, that it originated in the reign of the emperor Arcadius, and lasted only till the time of Theodosius. Some writers have doubted whether such a sect ever existed; but even in the present day, sentiments of a somewhat similar kind are current among the Shakers in North America. ABELLIO, the name of a heathen divinity, found in inscriptions which were discovered at Comminges, in France. Some writers have considered Abellio to be the same as Apollo. The root of the word has been traced by others to Belus, or BAAL (which see), a Syrian deity referred to in the Old Testament Scriptures. |