sea-faring life, and as the winds and weather in the waters that surround this continent are not regulated by the seasons of the year, but are subject to continual changes, this circumstance has given to them that boldness in maritime enterprise which forms the most distinguishing feature in their character, and raises them above most other civilized nations of the globe. Europe, in fact, considered by itself, is only a large peninsula, which is further cut up into a great number of smaller peninsulas by the interior seas and gulfs which penetrate far inland into the main mass of the peninsula; consequently, in proportion to its surface, it presents a much greater extent of coast than any other of the great divisions of the globe, as will appear by the annexed table, which however must be considered only as a rough approximation :— The Atlantic Ocean, with which all the seas that wash the shores of Europe are connected, except the Caspian (and this is rather to be considered as an immense inland lake), forms the Bay of Biscay between Cape Finisterre and the island of Ushant; the English Channel between the northern coasts of France and the southern coasts of England; St. George's Channel, between Great Britain and Ireland; and the North Sea, which separates Great Britain from the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and Norway. The North Sea might be considered a closed sea, as it is united on the south to the great expanse of the Atlantic only by the straits of Dover, which, between the South Foreland in Kent and Cape Grisnez in France, is only eighteen miles wide, and by the comparatively narrow channel called the English Channel, if it were not on the north connected with the Atlantic by the open and wide expanse of sea which separates North Britain from Norway. The close seas, which are united to the Atlantic by straits, are the White Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean; with the latter the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof are connected. The White Sea, the smallest of these inland seas, covers an area of only about 40,000 square miles. The strait by which it is connected with that portion of the Atlantic which is called the Arctic or Icy Sea, is about 200 miles long, and of considerable width, its narrowest part being from 30 to 40 miles across. This sea is entirely or partially covered with ice during four or five months of the year. Into its eastern part the Dwina falls; and into the wider part of the strait the river Mezen. The Baltic is connected with the North Sea by a channel with about 80 or 90 miles of average width; this channel branches off from the North Sea in an east-north-east direction, but afterwards suddenly turns south. That portion which is connected with the North Sea and extends to the east-north-east is called Skagerack, or the Sleeve by the British sailors, and the other part, which lies south and north, the Cattegat. At the southern extremity of the Cattegat are the three straits by which the Baltic is entered like three gates. The Sound, between Zeeland and Sweden, is the passage generally taken by vessels; it is at the narrowest place only about two miles wide. The Great Belt is in the middle between Zeeland and Fünen, and eight miles across at the narrowest place. The Little Belt, which is only three-quarters of a mile wide where narrowest, separates the island of Fünen from the peninsula of Jutland. The Baltic forms three great gulfs-those of Riga, Finland, and Bothnia. Receiving, by the numerous rivers which fall into it, great masses of fresh water, it is less salt than the Atlantic. This circumstance, and the small depth of its waters, sufficiently explain why ice is formed nearly every year along its shores, and the navigation is interrupted for three or four months. The Mediterranean is connected with the Atlantic by the strait of Gibraltar, which is about ten miles across. It is the largest of the close seas which wash the shores of Europe, but it receives the drainage of a comparatively small portion of its surface; the number of rivers which fall into it is very considerable, but few of them run 100 miles. Evaporation carries off a larger portion of its waters than is supplied by the rivers which flow into it, and there is accordingly a strong current setting continually through the straits of Gibraltar. A motion of its waters towards the east is proved by vessels requiring a greater time to sail from the coast of Syria to Gibraltar than from Gibraltar to Scanderoon. Its waters are salter than those of the Atlantic. It also forms several large gulfs; as, on the European side, the Bay of Lyon, that of Genoa, the Adriatic, and the Agean Sea, or Archipelago. By means of this sea the Straits of the Dardanelles (one mile across where narrowest), the Sea of Marmara, and the channel of Constantinople (six furlongs across at the most narrow place), the Mediterranean is united to the Black Sea, from which a constant current pours through the narrow straits into the Egean. [EUBA.] The Black Sea is connected by the strait of Yenikale with the Sea of Azof. It is less salt than the Mediterranean, and its northern shores in winter are frequently fringed with ice. The Caspian Sea, whose north-western shores only are included in Europe, is the largest of the numerous seas without an outlet which occur in the north-western regions of Asia. Ice is formed every winter along its northern shores. Its waters are salt, but only in a slight degree. Specific gravity of its waters. 1.0293 Seas. Mediterranean Extent. sq. miles 760,000 190,000 180,000 160,000 40,000 1.0400 1.0190 1.0283 Atlantic Sea, in the northern} When we consider these seas as the receptacles of the drainage of the adjacent countries, we find that those towards the east have the most extensive basins. The basin of the Caspian Sea, though it is only drained by two large rivers, the Volga and the Ural, occupies a surface of 850,000 square miles, as far as it belongs to Europe, and runs with its northern boundary along the parallel of 60° N. lat. The basin of the Volga, the largest of the rivers of Europe, contains an area of above 750,000 square miles. The basin of the Black Sea is somewhat larger. Its southwestern boundary is formed by the principal range of the Alps; its north-western by a line drawn from Switzerland to Moscow; and another line from this city to the mouth of the Volga, forms its north-eastern border. Its area in Europe is rather more than 900,000 square miles. The countries which are comprehended in the European part of its basin are drained by the Danube, Dnieper, Dniester, Don, and Kuban, and their tributaries. The basin of the Baltic is nearly equal in extent, including the Cattegat and Skagerack, being on all sides surrounded by countries which belong to Europe; their basin extends over a surface of nearly 900,000 miles, though perhaps none of its rivers rise more than 350 miles from its mouth in a straight line. The great rivers which fall into the Baltic are the Oder, Vistula, Niémen, Düna, Newa, and the numerous rivers descending from the Scandinavian range, as the Tornea-elf, Calix-elf, Lulea-elf, Pitea-elf, Scalefteaelf, Umea-elf, Angerman-elf, Indals-elf, Liunga-elf, Liusna-elf, and Dal-elf; and likewise the Götha-elf, and Glommen, which fall into the Cattegat and Skagerack, The basin of the White Sea is drained by the Dwina, the Mezen, and Petshora, and some other smaller rivers, and occupies a surface of about 400,000 square miles. Though the coast-line of the Atlantic from Cape North Kyn to Cape Tarifa, comprehends the whole of the shores of the western declivity of Europe, including the British islands, its basin probably does not much exceed 600,000 square miles. No considerable river flows into the Atlantic between Cape North Kyn and the mouth of the Elbe. Into the North Sea there flow the Elbe, Ems, the Rhine, Schelde, and of the rivers of Great Britain, the Spey, Tay, Forth, Humber, and Thames; into the English Channel, only the Seine; into St. George's Channel, the Severn; into the Bay of Biscay the Loire and Garonne; and immediately into the Atlantic the Clyde, the Shannon, the Duero, Tajo, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir. The basin of the Mediterranean, including the Archipelago, is by far the smallest of all those which belong to the inland seas of Europe, comprehending only about 250,000 square miles. The largest of its rivers, the Rhone, flows only 500 miles, including its bends. The other rivers, which are of a considerable length, are the Ebro in Spain; the Po and Tiber in Italy, and the rivers of Albania and the Maritza in Turkey. All the rivers which drain the basins of the Mediterranean and Atlantic Sea rise in the South European mountain region; those which fall into the Black Sea rise within the Great Plain except the Danube and its tributaries, which drain about one-third of the mountain region. The rivers which run to the Caspian rise partly on the watershed of the Great Plain, and partly in the Uralian range; and the same is the case with those that drain the basin of the White Sea. The rivers which flow from the east into the Baltic rise on the Great Plain; those which flow into it from the south rise on the edge of the mountain region; and those which fall into it from the north descend from the Scandinavian range. Climate. The climate of Europe presents great differences, if we compare it with that of those countries in other divisions of the globe, which lie within the same parallels. It is a well-established fact, that the eastern coast of North America is much colder than the western coast of Europe, under the same latitudes. This difference is in some places equal to 10° of latitude. Thus we find that the mean annual heat of London (51° 31′ N. lat.) is nearly 50° Fahr., while at Quebec (46° 48′ N. lat.) it hardly exceeds 42° Fahr. At Lisbon (38° 43' N. lat.) it is 614° Fahr., and at Williamsburg in Virginia (37° 5′ N. lat.) only 56° Fahr. It is however worthy of remark, that the eastern countries of Europe, especially those north of the Black Sea, are much colder, and approach in climate those of the eastern coast of America. At Moscow (55° 47′ N. lat.) the mean annual heat is not quite 38° Fahr., whilst at Edinburgh (55° 58′ N. lat.) it exceeds 47° Fahr. This difference in the climate of Europe may perhaps be explained by the circumstance that this continent is enclosed on most sides by seas whose water is warmer than that of the ocean at large. The water of the Mediterranean is from 4° to 5° Fahr. warmer than the ocean without the straits. Between America and Europe the warm water of the gulf stream, which exceeds the heat of the other water of the Atlantic by 8° or 10° Fahr., covers a surface not inferior to that of the Mediterranean, and the exhalations of this immense expanse of warm water are carried by the prevailing western and south-western winds to the western shores of Europe. Besides this, the water in the sea between Spitzbergen, Greenland, and the coast of Norway indicates a higher degree of temperature when drawn from some depth under the surface of the sea than on the surface itself. This has been proved by the experiments of Sir John Franklin and Captain Scoresby, though the contrary is the case in all other seas, as far as we know. Dr. Brewster however thinks that there are two frigid poles in the northern hemisphere, and that the degree of warmth increases with the distance from the meridian in which these poles are situated. By comparing the few exact meteorological observations which have been made in remote countries, he is induced to infer that these meridians are about 90° from the western countries of Europe, and hence he presumes we may account for the greater mildness of the climate in these regions. The observations which the latest traveller through the north of Asia, Dr. Erman, has made in those remote countries, seem rather to confirm than to contradict the theory of Dr. Brewster. With respect to climate, Europe may be divided into three zones, the northern, the central, and the southern. These zones may be separated from one another by two lines, of which the northern begins near 60° N. lat., on the western coast, and terminates between 55° and 54° N. lat. on the Uralian range on the east; the southern commences about 48° N. lat. on the west, and terminates on the east at the mouth of the Danube (45° N. lat.). In the northern zone only two seasons occur, summer and winter, the former lasting about three months (June, July, and August), and the latter nearly nine months. These seasons are separated by a spring and autumn of a few days, rarely two weeks' duration. In summer the heat is very great, and the vegetation inconceivably rapid. The winter is severe and boisterous, and brings down immense quantities of snow. In the central zone the four seasons are distinct, and the age from heat to cold and vice versa is very gradual. at is less than in the northern zone, and so is the cold during the winter; still frost prevails during two, three, or four months, and snow is common except on the coasts. In the southern zone frost is either not felt at all or only during a few days; and snow is of rare occurrence, or it does not lie on the ground for more than a few days. Vegetation accordingly is very little interrupted. But the countries within this zone have abundant rains during the last three months of the year, and are subject to great and long droughts in summer. These droughts frequently continue for four or five months, and in some places occasionally for eight or nine months. IV. The Man of Europe:-Nearly the whole population of Europe belongs to that race which is comprehended under the name of the Caucasian race; but along the Uralian range, and at the most northern extremity of the continent, a few nations occur which belong to the Mongolian race; to which must be added the Magyars, who inhabit nearly the centre of Europe (Hungary). The inhabitants of the Caucasian race may be divided into three great branches and several smaller ones, if we consider them with reference to their language. The first division comprehends those languages which are derived from the Latin and an admixture of the languages of the antient aborigines and of the later destroyers of the Roman empire. These languages are spoken in the peninsulas of Italy and Spain, and in the countries west of the valley of the Rhine. They are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French languages. In some districts of the countries where these languages are spoken there still exist the languages of some of the aboriginal inhabitants of Europe. On both sides of the western extremity of the Pyrenean mountains, south and west of the river Adour, the Basque language is spoken by a population not exceeding 600,000 souls according to the most exact computation. The Cymr language is spoken in Wales, and also in the interior dis tricts of the most north-western peninsula of France, which is called Bretagne (Little Britain), by a population amounting to about 2,000,000 individuals. The most extensive of these languages is the Celto-Gaelic language, which is stil prevalent in the greater part of Ireland, and in some of the northern districts of Scotland. The number of the individuals who speak it perhaps does not fall short of 7,000,000. Many persons think that the Cymric and Celto-Gaelic languages ought to be considered only as dialects of the same original language. The second great branch of the languages is formed by those of Teutonic origin. These languages are spoken by the inhabitants of England, a great part of Scotland aud Ireland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands. In every one of these countries pecular dialect is spoken, though the affinity of all these languages cannot be questioned. It would seem as if the-e languages had been introduced into these countries by ther first inhabitants, or aborigines, as at present no other lan guage is spoken in any of these districts (with the exception of the British islands), nor do we find any mention in historcal records of such other languages ever having existed. The third great family of languages is comprehended under the name of Slavonian. The most western tribes that speak these languages are found in the eastern districts of Germany. The Czekes inhabit Bohemia, and the Wendes the north-western part of the Prussian province of Silesia. In the south-western part of the same proviree | Polish is spoken. Between Vienna and Trieste is another Slavonian tribe, also called Wendes, or Windes by the Germans; but they call themselves Slovenzi. Towards the south the Slavonian language extends to the very sumat of the Balkan, the inhabitants of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria, speaking dialects of that language. From these extreme points the Slavonian language is spoken over the whole of the great plain ef Europe to the borders of Asia, on the Uralian range, and n the river Ural. The most extensively spoken languages et this family are the Russian and the Polish. In the immense tract of country in which the Slavonian language may be considered as prevalent, some extensive districts are occupied by nations who speak different lar guages. We shall first notice the tribes of Mongoliza origin, who form three different groups. The most nu merous tribe are the Magyars, who inhabit the greatest part of the Hungarian plain, especially that portion whics lies east of the Danube, from the banks of which river they extend to the foot of the Carpathian mountains, where they are on every side surrounded by Slavonian tribes. The second group of nations of Mongolic origin occupy the countries between the Scandinavian Peninsula on one side, and the White Sea and the three great lakes of Ladoga, Onega, and Peipus on the other side. The Laplanders inhabit the country between the northern extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea; the Finns occupy the country farther south, as far as the Gulf of Finland. At the most eastern part of this gulf live the Inghers, and south of it the Esthonians and the Livonians, who extend to the southern part of the Gulf of Riga. All these nations speak dialects of the same language, which is said to have a great resemblance to the language of the Magyars. The third group of the Mongolian tribes occupy the countries along the Uralian range, and between the rivers Ural and Volga. The most northern tribe are the Samoyedes, who occupy the eastern portion of the government of Archangel, between the river Metzen and the Uralian range. South of them, in the eastern districts of the government of Wologda, are the Siryanes, who also occupy the northern part of the government of Perm. In the southern districts of this government are the Permiens, the Wogules, and Wotyakes. Here are also a few families of the Mordwines, Cheremisses, and Chuwashes, who are dispersed over the surface of the governments of Viatka, Kasan, Simbirsk, and Pensa, where they inhabit an extensive district on the western side of the Volga. Their neighbours on the other side of the Volga are the nomadic tribes of the Calmucks and Kirghises. The former occupy the countries contiguous to the Volga, on its eastern bank; but the Kirghises inhabit those between the rivers Useen and the river Ural. The two latter tribes are Bhuddists. To these tribes are still to be added the Bashkirs, who, in their stature, and the conformation of their face, evidently show their Mongolian origin, though they speak a Turkish dialect. They inhabit the most eastern part of Europe, the northern portion of the government of Orenburg, and some districts of that of Perm, on both sides of the Uralian range. Different both from the Mongolian languages, and those of the Slavonian tribes, are the languages spoken by the Lithuanians and Courlanders, two small nations who inhabit the countries between the rivers Niemen and Düna, and extend over the northern districts of eastern Prussia and the Russian governments of Grodno, Minsk, Wilna, and Mitau. The Wlaches, or inhabitants of Wallachia and Moldavia, speak a peculiar language, with which a great number of Latin words are mixed up. Hence it is inferred that their ancestors inhabited these countries when they were subject to the Roman empire. The eastern peninsula of southern Europe is inhabited by nations who speak three different languages. The most numerous are those who speak the Turkish language, which is used by the Osmanlis or Turks, and the Tartars. Some tribes of the latter nation are also dispersed among the Slavonian nations, on the northern shores of the Black Sea, Those thus marked * are states which are ANDORRA (Pуrences) ANHALT-BERNBURO COETHEN. DESSAU States. where they are known by the names of the Nogai Tartars and Meshtcheryakes. They are most numerous in the Crimea, and along the northern declivity of the Caucasus. The Osmanlis form the bulk of the population in those parts of Turkey which lie between the Balkan and the Volutza range. The mountainous countries west of the Pindus range are inhabited by the Albanians, who speak a peculiar language, and are considered as the descendants of the Illyrians, the aborigines of these countries. The most southern part of the peninsula is inhabited by the Greeks, who form the bulk of the population in Greece, and also in that portion of Turkey which lies between the Volutza and Othrys ranges. Their language does not differ substantially from the antient Greek, of which it is a corrupted form, mixed up with some Latin, Italian, Turkish, and other foreign words. The population of Europe is calculated to amount to about 230 millions in round numbers. The Christian religion is that which generally prevails. The Catholic faith is nearly exclusively professed by the inhabitants of Portugal, Spain, and Italy, and also by the majority in France, Austria, Bavaria, Poland, Belgium, and Ireland. Catholics are also numerous in some cantons of Switzerland, and some provinces of Prussia and of Russia. The whole number of the adherents of this faith is calculated to amount to 112 millions. To the Greek church belong the Russians and the Greeks; and a great number of the members of this churcn are dispersed over different parts of Turkey: they amount altogether to about 54 millions. The inhabitants of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark are nearly exclusively Protestants; and the various sects of Protestants form the great majority in England, Scotland, Holland, Switzerland, Prussia, and the northern and western states of Germany. In France, Austria, Ireland, Belgium, and some provinces of Russia, Protestants are numerous. The whole number is about 52 millions. There are Armenians in Russia, Austria, and Turkey; about 200,000 in all. The Turks and Tartars, with some of the small tribes of Mongol origin along the Uralian Mountains, are Mohammedans. Their number is supposed not to fall much short of six millions. Among the Laplanders and Samoyedes there are still some who have not embraced Christianity. The Calmucks and the Kirghises are mostly Bhuddists. At Astrakhan there are a few Hindoos. The Jews are most numerous in some parts of Russia, Poland, Austria, and Turkey. Their number cannot be accurately estimated. In the south-eastern countries of Europe there is a considerable number of gypsies: it is doubtful what their religion is. The following is a tabular view of the sovereign states of Europe in 1837. The areas and population are given from the latest and best authorities, and, wherever they could be got, from official documents. It is hardly necessary to observe that these figures must be considered only as approximations with respect to several of the states of Europe, such as Turkey and Greece, for instance. members of the Confederation of Germany. AUSTRIA, Empire of 1, in Germany, Hungary, &c.; 2, in Italy BADEN BAVARIA BELGIUM *BREMEN BRITAIN, GREAT, Ireland, and settlements" and islands in Europe CHURCH, States of the, or Papal States FRANCE FRANKFORT (on the Main) GRENCE. HAMBURO •HAND JER HESSE CASSEL, or Electorate of Hesse HESSE-DARMSTADT, or Grand Duchy of Hesse HESSE-HOMBURG HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN. Limited monarchy; two chambers two chambers Principality; limited sovereignty, with one chamber do. Limited monarchy, with two chambers (a) The area is assumed from the President's decree of the 25th of April, 1828. Balbi and others carry it above 15,000. The population, according to Klade's Aimanac for 1837, is 926,000, besides 12,326 troops. P. C., No. 606. VOL. X.-N 12,569 4,230,000 67 57,800 116,700 1,525 17,048 25,300,000 250,000 2,590,000 Republic; senate and chamber of representatives 490 124,300 2,040,000 38,290 202,125 57,400 33,600,000 1 Zoology of Europe.-In giving a general view of the animals of Europe, it will be found that the number of wild quadrupeds at present existing (many species having become extinct from the progress of civilization), is too small to exhibit many characteristic peculiarities in their geographical distribution and local adaptation; and the close connexion of this continent with that of Asia makes it very difficult to draw any exact line between their productions. Many of the animals of the south of Europe are also common to the north of Africa; and most of the quadrupeds inhabiting the northern parts of our continent are found in the corresponding latitudes of Asia and America. But though the zoology of Europe does not possess much interest from the number, size, or peculiarity of its animals, this is in some measure compensated by the intimate acquaintance which we possess with the habits and manners of many of the smaller species, whose natural history has been carefully investigated by many able and industrious naturalists. In the following table the mammalia which are found in Europe are arranged according to their position in the orders of the Cuvierian system; those which are peculiar to this continent, and those which are common both to it and other parts of the globe, are placed in separate columns. ORDERS. Whole No. Whole No. of European No. of spe- No. of spe- Europe and rock of Gibraltar, and thus enters into the geographical limits of Europe. The domesticated quadrupeds occupy a much more important station among the animals of our continent than any of the wild species: under this head we shall mention the horse, ass, goat, sheep, ox, hog, dog, and cat, and in the more northern parts of Europe the rein-deer may be added. No wild races of horses at present exist which have not descended from domesticated varieties; but it seems probable that they were aboriginal in Tartary, and most likely m other parts of Asia. From the former country it is conjectured that they were originally imported into the north and east of Europe; while in the southern and western parts of the continent they were probably derived from Barbary and Arabia; but this of course must be mere conjecture, as we cannot name any time within historical limits when these animals were not spread over all or the greater part of Europe. The horses of Spain were celebrated in the time of the Romans, after which they were probably crossed with the Barbary and Arab breeds during the Moorish dynasty. They may be considered as the lightest and fleetest of the old European breeds and the nearest approaching to the Arab; but they have fallen off greatly during the last century, little care having been bestowed in keeping up the more noble breed. The best Spanish horses are generally about four feet six or eight inches high, and closely resemble the beautiful Arabians of Barbary called Barbs: those of Andalusia, Granada, and Estremadura are the best. The heaviest horses in Europe come from the shores of the North Sea, and the smallest from the north of Sweden and from Corsica. Those of Germany and Italy are of little note. Switzerland produces good draught horses, and those of Holland are noted for the same qualities. The French is a useful and hardy race, and will endure greater fatigue, though it is not possessed of the size and beauty which now characterize the English horses: the native breeds have been much improved lately by crossing with English stallions. Greater attention is paid to the breeding Total of horses in England than in any other country excepi Arabia; but while the Arabs only endeavour to preserve We here see the relative number of European mammals their breed in its original purity, we have improved upon t placed according to their organization, in different groups by crossing with other varieties, till the English horses boch or orders; and we may remark that no animal is found in exceed the Arabian in size and fleetness, and equal them Europe belonging to the Marsupialia and Edentata, while in many instances in symmetry, though they are not qure of the Quadrumana and Pachydermata two species only their match in powers of endurance. The English horses inhabit our continent, one belonging to each order, the have been divided into four principal classes-the racer, Barbary ape (Inuus sylvanus) and the wild boar (Sus the hunter, the carriage-horse, and the dray-horse. scrofa). The former is found among the precipices of the The ass in Europe holds a very inferior place to the horse. tinents. 0 species. species. I. Quadrumana 186 1 0 1 II. Cheiroptera 192 27 23 (a) Including the governments of Perm, Viatka, Kasan, Simbirsk, Pensa, Saratof, Astrachan, and part of Orenburg, 453,390 square miles, It is generally an ill-used and neglected animal. Originally of Asiatic extraction, it does not accommodate itself so well to our climate as the horse; for it feels the effects of cold more, and degenerates in northern countries; a circumstance which partly accounts for the contempt in which it is held. In the southern parts of Europe it is a fine spirited animal, and approaches in appearance and usefulness to those of Western Asia and Egypt. The Spanish and Maltese are the finest breeds of asses in Europe. One principal use of this animal is for the breeding of mules, which are extensively used in the mountainous parts of Southern Europe as beasts of burden, where, from their possessing the sureness of foot of the ass, with greater size and strength, they are found exceedingly useful. Sheep and goats, though placed in distinct genera, are sc nearly allied, that the characters which distinguish them are very slight; and there are several races or species of wild sheep and goats very nearly approximated. It is not easy to trace the present domesticated varieties of either of them to any species still existing in a wild state, for both goats and sheep were among the earliest animals domesticated by man. Cuvier imagined that all the present varieties of the domestic goat have arisen from the Capra ægragos, a wild species inhabiting the mountains of Persia, where it is called Paseng by the natives. He also states that this animal has been found on the Alps; but it has been supposed that this variety, which is met with there in a wild state, might have been a hybrid between the common goat and the Ibex. It seems probable that the goat preceded the sheep in domestication; at any rate it did so in the north and west of Europe for many ages. It is a hardier animal, and will live on the roughest fare, being an inhabitant of mountainous districts, where it is principally bred. The most numerous and finest varieties of domestic goats are in Asia. The Welsh breed is large. with fine long hair, generally white. In Sweden and Spain there are long-haired hornless breeds, with upright ears. The utility of goat's milk is well known; and though the flesh of the adult animal is not much valued, that of the kid is very palatable; the horns and hair are used in different manufactures; and the skin is formed into leather for making gloves, &c. Caesar, and other antient writers; but what makes it improbable that this was the parent of our domestic oxen is the fact, that several important anatomical differences. prancipally as to the shape of the skull, are discovered between the Scotch bull and the domestic ox. Numerous specimens of fossil skulls, found in the more recent formations, which are supposed to have belonged to the antient Urus, present also the same differences. The largest European breeds of cattle are those of Podolia, and the Ukraine, of Turkey, Hungary, and the Roman states. The Roman variety is supposed to have been introduced by the Goths, as all the representations of oxen found among old sculptures seem to denote a smaller race, more resembling that which is now seen in Tuscany, of a fine form, and pure white colour. There is a large breed of oxen in Denmark, which is the origin of the Dutch and Holstein varieties; the latter is the parent of the English unimproved breeds. The hog occupies a low place in the scale of domestic animals, though its flesh forms an exceedingly good article of diet, and one much used by the peasantry in Christian countries. One of its most valuable qualities is that of preserving exceedingly well with salt, without becoming dry and hard, and losing its nutritive properties. The common wild boar (Sus scrofa) of Europe is no doubt the original parent of our domestic varieties. It was once in digenous over the whole of the old world, though now exterminated from some countries, as for instance Great Britain. The English breed of pigs is the finest in Europe, and some of them are fattened to an enormous size. In Ireland every cottager keeps his pig as a regular part of his establish ment; and the salting of pork for exportation is a con-iderable article of trade in that country. There is a peculiar long-legged race of swine in Portugal and Spain. The pigs of Poland and Russia are of a reddish colour, and very small. The dog claims our attention, not for his use as a beast of burthen, or in providing food for our tables, but for the attachment which he shows to man, becoming his companion and friend, assisting him in his pleasures, and protecting his property and home. M. F. Cuvier has divided the different varieties of dogs into three primary types; the first has the jaws and muzzle elongated, and we may remark that all the wild species, as Sheep seem to have been originally derived from west the Dingo of New Holland, &c, belong to this group, and ern Asia, whence they were imported into Africa, where more resemble the wolf and fox: this therefore may be they arrived at greater perfection than in their parent causidered as the most natural type. The second group country. All the wild varieties of sheep have hair, and has the jaws shorter than in the first, though longer than not wool: the change in the covering of the body seems to in the last division. The principal varie.ies of dog found have arisen from the effects of cultivation and climate. in Europe belonging to the first group are--1, the Albanian, The different kinds of domestic sheep are all supposed to mentioned by the oldest historians and poets; 2, the have arisen either from the Argali (Ovis ammon), or the French matin, which is considered by the writers of that different varieties of Musmon (Ö. musmon), one of which nation as the most important of the canine race, and the is still found wild in some of the islands of Europe, as ancestor of many others; 3, the Irish Greyhound; 4, the Candia, Sardinia, and Corsica. There seems formerly to great Danish Dog; 5, the common Greyhound. The have been a wild race of sheep in Great Britain, which was second group of dogs includes the most intelligent and very large, with great horns and tail. Mr. Pennant ob- useful kinds, as the spaniels, hounds, shepherd's, and wolf serves (History of Quadrupeds) that such an animal is dogs; and we may here mention as belonging to this figured on a bas-relief taken from the wall of Antoninus, section the Alpine spaniel, or Mount St. Bernard dog, a near Glasgow. Boethius says that a breed of sheep lived variety of the Spanish breed, which is a beautiful and in St. Kilda which had horns as large as an ox, and reach- intelligent animal, kept by the monks at the monastery, ing to the ground. The principal European breeds of do- from whence it derives its name, for the preservation of mestic sheep are-1, the many-horned of Iceland; 2, the unfortunate travellers, who are often lost in the snows of Cretan; 3. Wallachian; 4, Merino, or Spanish: 5, the Eng- this inhospitable region. Two of them are said to be sent lish, of which there are many varieties. The most import- out together, one carrying a cloak, and the other a basket ant among the continental races is the Merino, which differs of provisions and cordials: thus provided, they often from the English in bearing wool on the forehead and discover, and are the means of saving persons who would cheeks. The wool is of the finest quality for manufac-otherwise perish with cold and fatigue. In the last group, turing cloth. This breed is extended over the greater part of Spain. But Great Britain possesses the most valuable race of sheep, taking every thing into consideration; for it produces the greatest quantity of the best wool, and the most delicate flesh. The ox, which belongs to the largest tribe of ruminating animals, is eminently serviceable to man, though since the horse has come into such general use, oxen have been less employed in husbandry. It was first domesticated by the Caucasian nations of western Asia, and from thence is supposed to have found its way into Africa and Europe; but it has been imagined that the domestic varieties in our continent might have arisen from races which once existed in Europe, and even in Britain, in a wild state, the only remains of which is the wild bull of Scotland (Bos Scoticus), still preserved in one or two parks in the North. This is most probably the species which was named Urus by which have the muzzle very short, are placed the mastiff, bull dog, pug, &c. Our English breeds of mastiffs were once so celebrated that the Roman emperors appointed an officer in the island, whose business it was to send these dogs to Rome to fight in the arena; and in later times, when in our own country savage conflicts between dogs and wild beasts were a fashionable amusement, great care was bestowed on the breeding of bull-dogs and mastiffs. There has been considerable diversity of opinion respecting the origin of the domestic cat, and the part of the world from whence it originally came. It has been thought by some that it must have been an inhabitant of warm climates, as it is a chilly animal, and always creeps as near to the fire as possible. Cuvier believed that it was a native of our European forests, and was the same species as the wild cat at present found, having been only altered by the effects of domestication. In support of this opinion, it is |