what was customary or habitual in past time, it has nothing in common with what is called the imperfect tense in other languages.

33. FORMATION OF THE PAST TENSE.-We now come to explain the formation of the simple tenses. (1) And here our task is confined to a statement of the modifications which the root undergoes to express past time, since, as we have already remarked (§ 31: 3), the indefinite tense is the root itself-the simplest form of the verb.

(2) The past tense of English verbs is formed from the root in two distinct ways (already noticed, § 18: 7), by inflexion, and by a radical modification. (3) The learner will remember that inflexion is the name given when some addition by way of termi nation is made to the root, and that radical modification is the name given when a change is effected in the vowel sound of the root, or original word. (4) We have examples of the formation of the past tense by inflexion in the following verbs; act, past tense acted; talk, talked; call, called; paint, painted, &c. And of the formation by a radical modification in write, past tense wrote; see, saw; speak, spoke; give, gave, &c., &c.

(5) The past tense of the greatest part of our verbs is formed by inflexion. (6) This inflexion consists of the addition (in the present spoken language) of the sound of d, or ed, or, sometimes, t to the root of the verb. (The causes, which determine whether the d, or the t sound must be added in any particular case are described in § 23.) (7) In the written language, when the root of the verb happens to end in e, we add the letter d, and when the root has any other ending we add ed to form the past tense. (8) Thus the past tense of this whole class in the written language

$83. (1) To what is our task confined in explaining the formation of the simple tenses, and why is it so confined?

(2) In how many ways is the past tense formed from the root of the verb? (3) Repeat what is said of inflection and radical modification. (4) Illustrate by examples.

(5) How is the past tense of the greatest part of English verbs formed? (6) What addition is made to the root of the verb in the spoken language to form the past tense? (7) Describe what is done in the written language. (8) What is the ending of the past tense of this whole class of verbs in the written language? Mention exceptions.

ends in ed, except a few which have undergone contraction; such as leapt, contracted from leaped; knelt, from kneeled; wept, from weeped; spelt, from spelled, &c.

(9) This termination (ed) was, no doubt, universally pronounced fully, so as to form a complete additional syllable in the spoken language of our early ancestors. (10) It is still sometimes fully pronounced in reading the sacred Scriptures and on solemn occasions; but both in the language of conversation, and in ordinary reading and public speaking the vowel sound is suppressed, and the d sound alone attached to the root, wherever this is possible. (11) It is not possible when the root already ends in a d or a t sound; and in such cases we add in speaking the full sound represented by the ed to the root; as, for example, in the verbs end, past tense, ended; add, added; act, acted; &c.

(12) Verbs forming their past tense in this manner, we call verbs of the modern conjugation.

(13) Those verbs which form their past tense by means of a radical modification, are commonly (but, we think, improperly) called irregular verbs, because it has been found difficult to detect any general law governing the changes to which their roots are subjected. (14) We call them verbs of the ancient conjugation.

(15) The verb to be may be considered irregular or rather defective, being made up of fragments of several ancient verbs, "each of which is defective in several of its parts. The parts, however, that are wanting in one verb, are made up by the inflexions of the others." (16) The same may be said of the verb to go; the past tense went is formed from wend. We shall give at the close of this chapter an alphabetical list of all the verbs which do not form their preterits by the addition of ed or d, including all the verbs of the ancient conjugation, and such verbs of the modern conjugation as by contraction or otherwise have come to assume an apparently irregular form, together with the few really irregular or defective verbs.

EXERCISES I., II., &c.—Form propositions with verbs of the past tense.

[(9) What is said about the pronunciation of the termination ed in ancient times? (10) What is the modern custom in reference to the pronunciation of this final ed? (11) What must be done when the root ends in a d, or a t sound? Illustrate by examples.

(12) By what name do we distinguish verbs which form the past tense in this manner? (13) What name is generally given to verbs which form the past tense by a radical modification? (14) How do we name them?

(15) What is said in reference to the verb to be? (16) What of the verb to go?]

§ 34. OF MODIFIED FORMS OF THE VERB EMPLOYED TO INDICATE THE NUMBER AND PERSON OF THE SUBJECT.-(1) At present, there remains in our language no distinctive termination for the plural of any of our verbs, except the verb to be. (2) This verb has a plural form in the past tense, We were, Ye were, They were.

(3) This verb has also apparently a plural form in the indefinite tense, We are, Ye are, &c. (4) Whether intended originally for the purpose or not, this form now serves to distinguish the plural of this verb, being different from all the singular personal forms.

(5) In the English of the present day, the root (or radical form) of the verb without change is used for the first person singular, and for all the three plural persons of the indefinite tense. (6) For example, these persons of the verb to call, are, 1st person singular, I call; plural persons, 1st, We call, 2d, You call, 3d, They call, or Men, &c., call. (7) The only exception occurs in the forms of the verb to be, in which the 1st person singular differs from the plural persons: 1st person singular, I am; plural persons, We are, You are, They are.

(8) The simple form of the past tense (already described) is used for the 1st and 3d persons singular, and for all the plural persons; as, 1st person, I called, 3d person, He, She, It, The man, &c., called; plural 1st pers., We called, 2d, You or ye called, 3d, They, Men, &c., called. (9) The only exception to this again occurs in the past tense of the verb TO BE, in which was is the form for the 1st and 3d persons singular, and were for the plural persons: 1st person singular, I was, 3d, He, &c.,

$34. (1) Have we any plural form of our verbs in present use? (2) What is said of the past tense of the verb to be?

(3) What is said of the indefinite tense of the verb to be in reference to a plural form? (4) What is said of the purpose which the form ARE actually serves, whether originally intended, or not?

(5) What persons does the root of the verb express in the indefinite tense? (6) Give example. (7) State exception.

(8) What persons singular and plural are expressed by the simple past form? (9) Mention an exception, and give full explanation.

was; plural 1st, We were, 2d, You or ye were, 3d, They, &c.,

were.

(10) The second person of both tenses, indefinite and past, is formed by adding the termination st—to the root for the indefinite, to the past form for the past tense, when this can readily coalesce with the root or the past form; when it cannot, est is added. (11) Examples: 2d person, indefinite tense, Thou callEST, Thou movEST, &c. ; 2d person, past tense, "Thou calledsT us not when thou wentEST." (12) Remark: These second persons singular, of both tenses, are now .rarely used, except in the solemn style.

(13) The third person singular of the indefinite tense is formed in two ways: 1st, by adding the sound represented by eth to the root-in the written language, by adding the letters eth to the root, or th only when the root ends in e mute; 2d, by adding an s or z sound to the root-in the written language, by adding the letter s. (14) Examples: He callETH, or He calls; He moveтH, or He moves. (15) The form in eth is rarely used at present, except in the solemn style; but it was very generally employed by many of the best writers (especially by Scottish writers) of the last century.

(16) Remark: The form in s being made in the same way as the plural form of nouns, is subject to many of the same rules of formation. (17) For example; when the root of the verb ends in an s sound, we add es, sounded ez; as, I miss, He misses; She blushes; He marches, &c. When the verb ends in o we add es; as, He goes, He does, &c. And, when the verb ends in y, preceded by a consonant, in the written language, we change the y into i and add es; as, He cries, from cry; It flies, third person of the verb to fly. (18) Whether an s or a z sound is to be added to a verb to form the third

(10) How is the second person of both the indefinite and past tense formed? (11) Give examples. (12) Repeat the remark.

(13) How is the third person singular of the indefinite tense formed? (14) Give examples. (15) Repeat the observation in reference to the form in eth.

[(16) Repeat the remark in reference to the form in 8. (17) Illustrate this remark by examples of verbs ending 1st in an s sound; 2d in o, and Ed in y, preceded by a consonant. (18) Repeat what is said about determining whether an 8, or a ≈ sound shall be added to form the 3d person.

person, is determined by the same principles as in the formation of the plural of nouns.

The following are exceptions to the rules now given for the formation of the 2d and 3d persons singular of verbs. (19) The verb have has for its 2d and 3d persons the forms hasr and haтн or has, evidently contractions for havest and haveтн or haves. (20) Will (used as an auxiliary to indicate futurity) and shall form the second person singular by adding the sound t instead of st to the root. In writing them we drop one l; as, Thou shalr go, Thou wilt go. (21) Will (auxiliary), shall, may, can, must, and (generally) dare (to have courage, and followed by the infinitive, or verbal), take no addition to the root in the third person singular; as, He WILL come; He SHALL, MAY, CAN, MUST, DARE go.(a)

We have now, we believe, noticed all the changes of form which English verbs, in the present state of the language, exhibit. We except a few forms of the verb to be, omitted because they can be best learned from the table, in which all the variations of this verb-or rather the fragments of several verbs, employed to assert being—are presented.

The essential part of the formation of the persons (all that cannot be learnt from the table of the tenses to be presently given) may be summed up briefly as follows:

(22) The second persons singular of both tenses are formed by adding st or est to the root and to the past tense form respectively; and the third person singular of the indefinite tensø is formed by adding an s to the root. In the other persons of the indefinite tense, the unmodified root is employed; and in the other persons of the past tense, the past tense form, without further modification, is employed.

(23) Remark: The formation of the third person singular of the indefi

(a) When will is used in its original sense, to express determination, resolution, purpose of mind, or volition, sometimes the second and generally the third person is regularly formed. Examples of the second person of will thus used and regularly formed are rare. Dare: -to challenge, when followed by a noun, we believe, always takes the regular termination of the third person; as, He dares the enemy to fight-he challenges the enemy.

(19) What is said of the 2d and 3d persons singular of the verb hove? (20) What of the 2d persons of the verbs will and shall? (21) What of the 3d persons of will, (auxiliary,) shall, may, can, must, and dare?]

(22) Repeat the summary account of the formation of the persons.

[(23) Repeat the remark.]