(12) We may here observe that it is to the existence of a passive form of the verb in the Greek and Latin languages-a form constituted, to some extent, of the root of the verb modified by flexion, without the aid, as in our language, of an additional word—that we owe the origin of the terms active, passive, and neuter, applied to verbs. (13) The active verbs are susceptible both of an active form and a passive form; that is, a form in which the subject of the proposition is the actor or agent, and a form in which the subject represents the recipient of the action, and is passive. (14) These verbs, when used in the one form, were called by the ancient grammarians active, and when used in the other form, passive. (15) Or one form of the verb was called by them the active voice, the other form the passive voice of the verb. (16) All active verbs, and none but active verbs, according to this classification, are susceptible of a passive use and passive form. (17) All other verbs, not admitting of a passive object, and, consequently, not of a passive voice, they called neuter verbs; that is (for neuter means neither), neither active nor passive verbs. (18) The subject of these verbs is by them neither asserted to act on an object distinct from itself, nor to be the passive recipient of an action.(b)

30. TENSES OF VERBS.-(1) The most important modification of form which verbs undergo in our language is that employed to indicate the different times, to which an assertion has reference. (2) These forms are called the TENSES of the verb.

(b) Were it not that many of our dictionaries retain the old names, active and neuter, we should feel disposed to discard these names altogether, and employ exclusively the more significant names, transitive and intransitive, now generally used by grammarians. But, whilst, in most dictionaries, the old names active and neuter are still used to designate this division of the verbs, and, in some more recent dictionaries, the terms transitive and intransitive are employed for the same purpose, it is necessary for the guidance of the learner in consulting dictionaries, that these two sets of terms should be familiar to him, and that he should remember that though the names are different the classification designated by them is the same.

(12) To what do we owe the origin of the terms active, passive, and neuter? (13) Of what two forms are active verbs susceptible? (14) How are they called when used in the one form, and how when used in the other? (15) Express this otherwise. (16) What verbs alone are susceptible of a passive form? (17) What are all other verbs called, and what does the name by which they are called mean? (18) What is said of the subject of neuter verbs?]

$30. (1) What is the most important modification of tho form of verbs? (2) What name is given to this modification? (8) Tell the derivation of the term tense.

(3) The term tense is derived from the French language, in which it is the word to express time. (a)

(4) In most languages, by what are called the tenses of verbs, more than mere time is indicated. (5) If time alone were indicated, we could have only four modifications at the most, viz., one to indicate that the assertion is made without reference to time, a second to indicate present time, a third to indicate past time, and a fourth to indicate future time (that is, time to come). (6) For verbs by means of the forms called tenses do not generally indicate time more definitely than this. (7) When greater precision in indicating time is required, recourse is had to additional modifying words expressive of the definite time intended. (8) Many languages have not forms of verbs sufficient to indicate distinctly the three grand divisions of present, past, and future time. (9) And most languages have no separate form to be used when there is no reference to time intended. (10) They employ for this purpose the same form by which present time is expressed. (11) Such languages, if time alone were indicated by the forms called tenses, should have only three tenses. (12) Yet some of these languages have six or more forms called tenses. (13) The reason of this is that another modification of the sense of the verb, besides time, and distinct from time, is expressed by what are called tenses or tense forms in most languages. (14) This fact seems, from the terms perfect and imperfect used in naming certain tenses, to have been recognised by the old grammarians, though it has been overlooked by the majority of modern grammarians. (15) Verbs, as we have already observed, generally express action, and all actions, and being also (that is all conceptions asserted by verbs), may come to be spoken of either first, as progressive (that is, going on), or incomplete at any time past, present or future, or, secondly, as completed at a present or past time, or to be completed at a future time. (16) This element we may

(a) The word tempus used to express this same modification of verbs in the Latin language, and from which the French temps, English tense, is derived, also signifies time.

[(4) Is more than mere time indicated by tense forms? (5) If time alone were indicated, how many tenses should we have? (6) State the reason assigned. (7) How do we indicate time with greater precision? (8) Have all languages forms sufficient to distinguish present, past, and future? (9) Have languages generally a distinct form to use when there is no reference to time? (10) What form usually serves this purpose? (11) If time alone were indicated by tense forms, how many tenses should such languages have at most? (12) How many forms called tenses have some of these languages? (13) Tell the reason of this. (14) What leads us to suppose that this fact was recognised by the ancient grammarians? (15) Describe the different ways in which the action of verbs may come to be spoken of. (16) How may the element described as connected sometimes with the action of

call the condition of the action as completed or perfected, or, on the contrary, incomplete and progressive. (17) Now to express distinctly all the varieties of modification occasioned by the union of these elements—the complete and incomplete condition of the action expressed by the verb, with the element of time, we should require ten separate forms.

(18) We should require, 1st, A form to express an assertion indefinitely—without reference either to the time, or the condition of the action asserted.

(19) 2d. A form to express an assertion that has reference to the present time alone, without indicating either the complete or incomplete condition of the action.

(20) 3d. A form to express an assertion that has reference simply to the past, without indicating whether the action is completed or not completed.

(21) 4th. A form to express an assertion that has reference, in like manner, simply to future time—the time to come.

Forms to express assertions in reference to

(22) 5th, Present time,

6th, Past time,

7th, Future time,

(23) 8th, Present time,

9th, Past time,

10th, Future time,

Action progressive.

Action completed.

(24) In English we express only two of the above modifications of the sense of the verb, by means of the root and inflexion, without the help of other words. Or, to express the same thing otherwise, we have only two simple tense forms in our language; and it is doubtful, as we shall see, whether one of these two can properly be called a tense.

§ 31. (1) We call those SIMPLE TENSES which consist

verbs be called? (17) To express fully the various combinations of the two elements of the time and the condition of the action of the verb, how many separate forms are required? (18) Describe form 1st.

(19) Form 2d.

(20) Form 8d.

(21) Form 4th.

(22) Forms 5th, 6th, and 7th.

(28) Forms 8th, 9th, and 10th.

(24) How many of these modifications of the sense of the verb do we express in English by modified forms of the root?]

§31. (1) What are called simple tenses? (2) What compound tenses?

either of the root of the verb alone, or of the root after undergoing some modification of its form. (2) When any modification of the time or of the condition of the action asserted by a verb is expressed by the help of other words, we call this combination a compound tense. We shall first consider the simple tenses.

(3) We use the root of the verb, subject to certain modifications to indicate the person of the subject, to express an assertion without reference either to the time or the condition of the action. Examples: I write, he writes, the man thinks, &c. (4) This may be called the INDEFINITE FORM of the verb-indefinite, we mean, as relates both to time and to progressive or completed action. (5) For the sake of uniformity, we shall call this the INDEFINITE TENSE.(a)

(6) This form has been generally, but improperly, as we think, called the present tense of English verbs, because it is very commonly used in assertions that have reference to present existing events or facts (7), but it certainly does not indicate any necessary connection with the present or any other time. (8) This form is employed in asserting all general truths-truths which exist independent of all time; as God is eternal; Truth is unchangeable; A triangle HAS three sides and three angles; and all mathematical and physical truths that are of an immutable nature. (9) It is, in fact, used precisely for the purpose described above, under form 1st; namely, to assert all kinds of action and existence, when we do not intend to limit the action definitely to either past, present, or future, nor to indicate whether it is completed or progressive. (10) So far is this form from being confined to the assertion of actions or states of being connected with present time, that it is often employed to express what is manifestly past or manifestly future. (11) As, Plato THINKS profoundly, Cicero WRITES with great elegance. Here the actions asserted are past. John

(a) This name, we admit, is not strictly proper, for this form of the verb is really no tense, because it does not indicate time.

(3) What form is employed to express an assertion without reference either to the time or to the condition of the action? (4) What may this form be called? (5) What name is adopted for the sake of uniformity?

[(6) Why has this form been called the present tense? (7) State the objection. (8) For what is this form said to be employed? Give the examples. (9) Describe the precise purpose for which this form is employed. (10) What is said to show that this form is not con⚫ fined to the expression of present actions? (11) Illustrate by examples.

WRITES to his father next Saturday. He GOES to town to-morrow, Here the

action is future.

(12) Again, on the other hand, we do not employ this form to express, in an explicit manner, that an agent actually performs an action in the present time. (13) For this purpose we must have recourse to a different form of expression. If I am asked what John actually does at present, I do not answer, He writes, but He is writing.

§ 32. (1) We employ in English a modified form of the roots of our verbs to express an assertion that has reference simply to the PAST, without indicating whether the action was progressive or completed at the past time referred to. (2) Examples: The boy wrote yesterday; The man thought differently; The poet lived in the country. In these expressions it is simply indicated by the form of the verb employed, that the action asserted is past.

(3) The action may have been in progress or completed; and owing to the nature of the action, we may be able from such an assertion to infer its condition, whether progressive or completed at the time past; but this condition in such cases is only inferred; it is not indicated by the form of the expression. (4) This is the only tense, properly so called, that is, expressed in English by a modification effected on the root or original form of the verb without other auxiliary words. (5) What we have called the indefinite tense, is expressed by the unchanged root of the verb; and, as regards indication of time, is properly no tense.

(6) The tense formed by a modification of the root of the verb, and which expresses simply past time, we shall call the PAST TENSE, or PRETERIT TENSE; and verbs of this form PRETERITS.

(7) This form has been very commonly, but very improperly, called in our grammars the imperfect tense. (8) Except that it is used to express

(12) Can we by this form express action in the present explicitly? (13) How do we express such action? Give an example.]

$32. (1) Describe the purpose for which we employ a modified form of the roots of our verbs. (2) Give examples, and tell what the form of the verb employed indicates.

[(3) When this tense is used, may we sometimes infer the condition of the action? And how may we infer it? (4) State what is remarked in regard of this tense. (5) What is here said of the indefinite tense?]

(6) What name is given to the tense formed by a modification of the root of the verb? [(7) By what name has this tense been improperly called? (8) Has this tense any thing in common (in regard to its use) with the imperfect tense in other languages?]