(11) Many words of foreign origin retain the plural form of the language from which they are adopted. (12) Some have two plural forms, one their original form, the other, a regular English form; as, cherub, plural cherubim or cherubs-the first the Hebrew, the second the English plural. In the same manner genius, a spirit, has the plural genîi; but genius, a person of extraordinary intellectual power, has for plural geniuses. Index, an algebraic term, has indices for plural; index, a table of reference, has the English form, indexes.

We subjoin a list of the principal words which commonly take foreign plurals. To those which have sometimes a plural of the English form we add E. pl. English plural:

We might add to this list, as words of this description are daily in creasing in the language. But as such words are generally (especially those newly imported) only used by persons who understand the languages from which they come, it is less necessary to give a complete

(11) What is said of words of foreign origin? (12) What further fact in regard of some of these? Give examples.

(18) What is the plural form of alumnus ? &c.

enumeration. (14) We now commonly use Messieurs-by contraction Messrs. as the plural of Mr.; as the Messrs. Thomson, or Messrs. Thomson and Adams. The old fashion was to say the Mr. Thomsons; and Mr. Thomson and Adams. In the same manner we now say the two Misses Thomson. Formerly it was more common to say the two Miss Thomsons.

(15) In regard to compound words, such as take after the principal word in the compound another word or words (as a modification or complement) form the plural by adding the sound to the principal word; as, commander-in-chief, pl. commanders-in-chief. Here, in-chief is a mere complement of commander. The same applies to the words father-in-law, son-in-law, aide-de-camp, &c.

(16) When the principal word comes last, it of course takes the plural modification. (17) Sometimes both words assume the plural form, but in such cases the words are scarcely to be reckoned compounds, but rather nouns in apposition. We have examples in men-servants, women-servants, knights-templars.

26. (1) NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE PLURAL FORM.-Some nouns, being the names of things formed double by nature or by art, are used only in the plural; as, bellows, lungs, scissors, tongs, pincers, &c.

(2) NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE SINGULAR FORM.—Proper names, when used strictly as such, that is, when used appropriately to a single individual, have necessarily no plural form. When nouns, originally proper, are usurped to name a class, they have plurals; as, The Cæsars, The Tudors, &c.

(3) Most abstract nouns are never used in the plural. Some of them are occasionally employed as names of classes of abstract attributes, and then assume a plural form, being used for the time in the same manner as common nouns; for example, we say the virtues of justice and benevolence. But this is a deviation from the special use of abstract nouns, which is to express an attribute regarded in all its universality as a single conception. When we speak of virtue, we mean the attribute virtuous in its whole extent, and this admits of no plural; but when we say the virtue of pru

(14) What is said of the plural of Mr. ? &c.

(15) What of compounds, when complementary words follow the principal word? (16) What when the principal word comes last in the compound? (17) What is said of compound words in which both words take the plural form?]

$26. [(1) Describe the nouns which are used only in the plural form; and give examples.

(2) Tell the first class of nouns used only in the singular form. Notice apparent exceptions.

(3) Repeat what is said of abstract nouns in reference to this matter.

dence, we imply that the conception of virtue admits of subdivision of parts, and consequently the name must admit a plural form.

(4) The names of substances which are not divided into perceptible parts or portions, and of which, consequently, we cannot determine the quantity by mere enumeration of these parts, but only by measure or weight, are seldom used in the plural form. (5) Such words as butter, lard, pitch, wax, gold, silver, iron, &c., are for this reason never used in the plural form. (a)

(6) Several nouns having plural terminations are employed sometimes with the singular, sometimes with the plural form of the verb. (7) The nouns means, wages (see Gen. 30: 28; Hag. 1; 6; Rom. 6: 23), amends, are of this class, with ethics, mathematics, physics, and many similar names of sciences. (8) News, though a plural form, is treated in construction as singular. (9) The noun pains, in the sense of trouble, labor, is employed in construction, sometimes as singular, sometimes as plural. (10) Modern usage inclines to the employment of this word exclusively as plural. (11) Riches, originally a singular noun (richesse) introduced from the French language, seems to have been taken by the uneducated for a plural, because it ends in an s sound, and hence it has come to be treated as a plural form in grammatical construction. (12) The word always takes plural verbs, and is represented by plural pronouns: 'Riches certainly make themselves wings; they fly away," &c.

(13) The word alms is also originally a singular form. This word has come in the same way to be treated generally in the language of the present day as a plural.. (14) It is sometimes recognised as a singular form by older writers; for example, "Asked an alms."

EXERCISE I., II., &c.—Let the learner form propositions having for their subject a given number of the above exceptions to the general rule for the formation of plurals.

(a) For the same reason assigned above, namely, that the quantity of the substances which they represent is always ascertained by weight, the nouns wool, tea, sugar, &c., are never used in the plural form, except when we speak of different sorts of these commodities. Thus, we speak of the wools of Spain, and the wools of Saxony; of green teas and black teas, &c.

(4) Describe a class of names of substances used only in the singular. (5) Give examples.

(6) Repeat what is said of some nouns having plural terminations. (7) Give examples. (8) What of the noun news? (9) What of pains, in the sense of trouble? (10) What is said of modern usage in this matter? (11) What is said of the word riches? (12) What form of verbs does it take, and what pronouns represent it? Give example.

(13) What is said of the word alms? (14) Has it ever been treated as singular? Example.]

CHAPTER III.

OF THE VERB.

§ 27. PRELIMINARY REMARK.-(1) It is the usual practice, both in Grammars and in Dictionaries, to employ the infinitive (the verbal noun with the prefix to, noticed in § 11) to designate any particular verb. (2) Thus, the word which asserts being is called the verb to be, the word which asserts writing the verb to write, &c. (3) It will be convenient in compliance with universal usage to retain this manner of indicating verbs; though apparently inconsistent with the definition of verbs which we have given, since the verbal with the prefix to is not assertive, and therefore not a verb, according to our definition. (4) The learner will therefore remember that when we use this form of expression, the verb to write, the verb to think, &c., we do not mean that the words to write, to think, are themselves verbs, but to express concisely (what may be more fully expressed) the verb which asserts the action to write, or of writing—the verb which expresses the action to think, &c.

(5) We here repeat the definition of the verb which we have adopted: viz., THE VERB IS THAT WORD IN A PROPOSITION WHICH EXPRESSES ASSERTION. As we arrange in the class of verbs all the words and only the words which perform the peculiar and readily recognised function of asserting, the learner, after a little practice, can find no difficulty in distinguishing them.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS IN REFERENCE TO THEIR MEANING.

$27. (1) How are particular verbs designated in grammars and dictionaries? (2) Illustrate by an example. (3) What is said of the practice of indicating verbs in this manner? (4) Repeat the caution given to the learner.

(5) Repeat the definition of a verb and the remark which follows.

-(6) The first striking distinction, in reference to meaning which arrests our attention, is that between verbs, which express alone a complete predicate-form a full rational assertion respecting the subject of the proposition-and those which do not express a predicate without the help of other words to complete them. (7) For example, the verbs grow and sleep express complete predicates complete assertions. Uniting the subject nouns, CORN and BOYS, with the verbs GROWS and SLEEP respectively, we form two complete propositions containing rational assertions; cORN GROWS; BOYS SLEEP. But such verbs as MAKE and GIVE will not form complete predicates, or complete assertions. If I say MEN MAKE, or MEN GIVE, I express no complete sense. Some completing word must be placed after them in order to form a proposition; as, The man makes ploughs; the man gives lessons; &c. (8) Regarded in this point of view, verbs might be divided into complete or perfect verbs, and incomplete or imperfect verbs.

But though the division of verbs into complete and incomplete verbs, subdividing the incomplete into classes in reference to the forms of complements necessary to constitute them rational predicates, is perhaps the most philosophical, we confine ourselves to the old and generally received classification, (9) which is used in our dictionaries as well as grammars, and for this reason claims the attention of the learner. It claims attention also as preparatory to the explanation of what is called the passive voice of verbs.

§ 28. (1) This classification divides verbs (on the principle of their requiring or not requiring one particular form of complement) into neuter verbs and active verbs. (2) The distinction between these two classes is this; in what are called neuter verbs, that which is asserted or predicated terminates in the subject of the assertion-affects only the subject. (3) Thus, when we say, "Corn

(6) Mention a striking distinction among verbs in reference to their meaning. (7) Illustrate this distinction by examples. (S) Into what classes might verbs be divided in reference to this fact? (9) What reasons are assigned for giving attention to the old classification?

§ 28. (1) Give the names of the two divisions of verbs according to this classification. (2) State the peculiarities which distinguish neuter verbs. (8) Illustrate by examples.