(12) This change is necessary and universal. It holds good, not for the English alone, but for all languages. (13) The only difference is, that dif ferent languages change different letters; that is, one accommodates the first letter to the second, and so turns agt into akt; another accommodates the second letter to the first, changing agt into agd.

24. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF ENGLISH NOUNS.

I. (1) The plural of English nouns is generally formed by adding either the sharp, hissing sound represented by the character s (the sound in son and hiss), or the soft sound (the sound of z), often represented in our language by the same character. (2) Examples. Roof, roofs; book, books; cup, cups; boot, boots; smith, smiths. All these, and all words terminating in similar sounds (viz., in the sounds represented by ƒ, k, p, t, and th hard), add the sharp sound of s to the root to form the plural. (3) All nouns terminating in the vowel sounds represented by a, e, i, or y, o, u; and in the consonantal sounds represented by b, d, g, l, m, n, r, v, and th soft, add the soft sound of s (the same as that represented in English by z) to the root to form the plural. (4) Examples. Bay, bays; bee, bees; tie, ties; bow, bows; virtue, virtues; cab, cabs; lad, lads; stag, stags; hill, hills; drum, drums; pen, pens; star, stars; wave, waves; tithe, tithes. These plural forms are pronounced as if spelled bayz, beez, cabz, stagz, &c. These sounds are always represented by the letter s. (a)

II. (5) When the noun ends in an s sound—that is, in s, ss, (which is equal to ks), sh, the soft sound of ch as in church, se, or ce, the syllable es (sounded ez) is added to form the plural. (b)

(a) The reason that we add the s sound in one case and the z sound in the other is already explained in § 23.

(6) The reason of this is that we cannot utter the sound of s after

(12) Is this change universal, or is it confined exclusively to the English language? (18) What is the only difference between different languages in this respect?

§ 24. (1) How is the plural of English nouns generally formed? (2) What nouns take the sharp sound of s to form the plural? Give examples. (3) What nouns take the soft sound like ? (4) Give examples, and tell how they are pronounced.

(5) In what cases do we add the syllable es to form the plural, and how is the 8 in this syllable pronounced?

(6) Examples. Kiss, kisses; box, boxes; brush, brushes; church, churches; phrase, phrases; face, faces. We have scarcely any original English noun which in the singular form ends in a single s. We have from the Latin isthmus, fungus, rebus, omnibus, and a few others, which have the plurals isthmuses, omnibuses, &c. All these plurals are pronounced with the soft sound of s, kissez, boxez, isthmusez, &c.

III. (7) Nouns ending in fe form plurals by the change of this termination into ves as wife, plural wives; knife, knives; pronounced wivz, knivz. Strife, plural strifes, is an exception, retaining the sound of f, and the hissing sound of s, which serves to distinguish this plural from the verb strives; also fife, plural fifes. (8) Many nouns, also ending in a single ƒ, form plurals by changing the f into v and adding es=ez; as, loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; half, halves; sheaf, sheaves; &c. (c) (9) Words ending in ff form their plurals regularly by adding the sharp sound of s; except staff, plural staves.

IV. (10) Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, generally add the termination es to form the plural; as, hero, plural heroes; cargo, cargoes; wo, woes; echo, echoes, &c. Exceptions: canto, grotto, junto, portico, quarto, tyro, solo, add only s. (11)

another s without the interposition of a vowel sound. In regard to words ending in an 8 sound, we must, therefore, either be contented to employ the same form in expressing a single object and a plurality of objectsthat is, fail in distinguishing the plural from the singular noun-or interpose a vowel sound between the two s sounds, and thus add a syllable to the word. The first of these alternatives has been followed in the French language in the case of words ending in s sounds, the second in the English.

(c) The words in f and fe which form plurals in ves are said to be all of Anglo Saxon origin, except beef, plural beeves; and writers on AngloSaxon grammar agree that f in the end of Anglo-Saxon words was pronounced with the softened sound of v. This fully accounts for the formation

(6) Give examples.

(7) How do nouns ending in fe form plurals? Mention exceptions, (8) How do many nouns ending in ƒ alone form their plurals? Examples. (9) How do nouns ending inf form the plural? Mention exceptions.

(10) How do nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form their plurals? Give exceptions. (11) What happens when the o final is preceded by a vowel?

When the o is preceded by a vowel, s alone is added; as, folio, plural folios, &c.

V. (12) Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y into ies, in the plural; as, city, cities; lady, ladies (d).

(13) These are some few plurals, of old English words, which are not formed on the same general principle with the classes of nouns already enumerated; viz., by the addition of an s sound, but by modification of the vowel sound of the root. We subjoin a list of the principal nouns of this class, as some of them are familiar words, frequently employed in discourse, and we may find it necessary to introduce them in the construction of examples.

We may add the personal pronouns and their plural forms

of these plurals in ves. The word dwarf, though Anglo-Saxon, forms its plural by adding the sharp sound of s.-(See Latham's Eng. Gram. p. 61.) (d) In the beginning of the 17th century, the singular forms of these nouns ended in ie, for which y has since been substituted. In the early editions of the authorized English version of the Bible, city is spelled citie; mercy, mercie, &c. The present plurals of these nouns are the regularly constructed plurals of these ancient singular forms. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel add & soft to form the plural.

(12) What is said of the formation of the plural of nouns ending in y preceded by a conBonant? Give examples.

(13) What is said of excoptions? What is the plural form of man? &c.

EXERCISES ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.-EXERCISE 1. Let the pupil furnish a list of a certain number of nouns which form their plurals by adding the sharp sound of 8, and give the reason-viz., because they end in one of the sharp consonantal sounds, f, k, p, t, th hard.

EXERCISE II. Give a similar list of nouns forming the plural by the addition of the soft sound of s―z; and assign the reason-viz., because they end in one of the vowel sounds, or in one of the flat consonantal sounds, b, d, g, l, m, n, r, v, and th soft.

EXERCISE III. A similar list of nouns ending in an s sound with their respective plurals.

EXERCISE IV. Nouns in f and fe, forming plurals in ves.

EXERCISE V. Nouns in o preceded by a consonantal sound, taking the addition es in the written plural.

EXERCISE VI. Nouns in y preceded by a consonantal sound, and taking ies in the plural.

What we have said above will be sufficient for the student to learn on first passing through the book. We subjoin some additional remarks to be studied on a second perusal, together with a table of irregular forms. The pupil will remember that the plurals are almost universally formed by adding either s or es soft or hard.

§ 25. ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF PLURALS.-(1) A few English nouns form their plurals by the addition of en to the root. This plural termination was more common in Anglo-Saxon than in English. It seems to have been in earlier use than the formation in s; which, however, superseded it (in living use), even in Anglo-Saxon, long before the Norman invasion. (2) The only plurals of this form, in current use at the present day, are oxen, plural of ox ; children, plural of child; and brethren, one of the plural forms of brother.

(3) Children seems to exhibit a combination of two ancient plural forms. Or, rather the en, in the case of this word, has been added to a form already in use as a plural. Childer, as the plural of child, is still in common use among the uneducated classes in many parts of the British empire.

Dr. Latham has justly observed (Eng. Language, p. 220, 2d edit.), that the irregularity (if it may be so called) of the formation of the plurals, both of nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, and of nouns ending in y, is a matter of orthography rather than of etymology-of spelling rather than of grammar. In the spoken language, all these plurals are regularly formed by the addition of the soft sound of s to the noun.

§ 25. [(1) What is said of the formation of plurals in en? (2) Name the plurals of this form in current use.

(3) What remarks are made in regard of the plural form children?

The present plural seems to have been formed by adding en to this more ancient plural The Anglo-Saxon plural was cildru or cildra.

(4) According to the present custom, the plural form brothers is employed when we intend to express the natural relation subsisting between children of the same parents; and brethren when we apply the word figuratively to designate the fellow members of the same profession, or society; as, Christian brethren, Masonic brethren, &c. (5) In the earlier language, and particularly in the authorized version of the Bible, the form brethren is employed in the literal sense to express the relation of sons of the same parent; as, Joseph's brethren, &c.

(6) Plurals in en were much more common in old English. We find such forms as hosen, plural of hose; shooen, or shoon (not yet altogether out of use in some parts of Britain) plural of shoe; bischopen, plural of bischop-now written bishop, &c.

(7) We have noticed already that a few nouns form the plural by a radical change-a change of the vowel sound of the root. This method of formation is likely of earlier date than any of which traces have come down to the present time. We have already enumerated the few nouns which still retain plurals of this form.

. (8) The word penny takes pence for plural, when we mean to express a sum of money; but pennies when we mean to refer to the pieces of coin. The words six pence mean so much money-it may be contained in a single silver coin-but the words six pennies mean six of the copper coins, of which we call each one a penny.(a)

(9) Dice is the plural form of die used in play; but die, a stamp, has the regular plural form dies.

-(10) The nouns, deer and sheep, are the same in the singular and in the plural. Swine, often given as the plural of sow, generally means the species. When we speak of a number of the animals, we use the regular form, two sows, &c.

(a) The word pence, accompanied by a numeral, assumes a plural form; as two six pences, &c. Here, as to form, we have a double plural. As regards thought, our mind contemplates a sixpence as a single object. The conception is of a unit, and hence susceptible of plurality.

(4) What is said of the use of the plural forms brothers and brethren? (5) How was the form brethren used in former times?

(6) Repeat what is said of plurals in en in Old English.

(7) Repeat what is said of plurals formed by a radical change.

(8) Mention the plural forms of penny and their distinct uses. Give the illustration.

(9) State the facts in regard of the word die.

(10) The facts in regard of the words deer, sheep, swine.