(13) The adverbs employed exclusively with adjectives, are chiefly those which indicate intensity or the degree, in which the same quality or attribute is found to exist, or conceived to exist. (14) We may enumerate as examples, the words very, too, much, extremely, exceedingly, supremely, &c. And the words used to express comparison equally, more, most, less, least, &c.

EXERCISES.-Form propositions containing adjectives modified by ad

verbs.

(15) In reference to meaning, we may distinguish two grand classes of the adverbs which modify verbs. Those of the first class express the manner of the action indicated by the verb, and are generally known by the name of adverbs of manner; those of the second class express some circumstance, generally of time, place, or order, in reference to the assertion in the proposition in which they are found. This class we may venture to distinguish by the name of adverbs of circumstance, or circumstantial adverbs.

(16) The grammarians usually distinguish them by the names of adverbs of time, of place, of order, &c.—names which we shall apply, as others have done, to the sub-classes, whilst we give the name circumstantial adverbs to them all in common. We give this common name to mark that they possess common properties, as distinguished from the adverbs of manner.

(17) Now the adverbs of manner nearly all involve in their meaning the sense of a descriptive adjective, and like descriptive adjectives, express an inherent qualification of the action denoted by the predicate which they complete. (18) For example, That boy acts PRUDENTLY. Here prudently involves the sense of the descriptive adjective prudent, from which it is formed, being, in fact, equivalent to the phrase, in a prudent manner, and it serves as a descriptive inherent qualification of acting, as here predicated of the boy. (b)

acted VERY WISELY. Here the adverb wisely is affected by another adverb, very. The true nature of this modification, or that which is really affected by it, will be clearly seen when we expand wisely into the phrase of which it is an abbreviated expression. That man acted IN A VERY WISE MANNER (b) See Structure of Language, pp. 286–7, note.

(13) What kind of adverbs are employed exclusively with adjectives? (14) Enumerate a few examples.

[(15) Describe the two classes into which adverbs which modify verbs are divided, and mention the names by which we distinguish them.

(16) By what names do grammarians usually distinguish circumstantial adverbs, and how do we apply these names?

(17) What is always involved in the meaning of adverbs of manner? And in what do they consequently resemble descriptive adjectives? (18) Illustrate this by an example.

EXERCISES.-Form propositions having verbs modified by adverbs of

manner.

(19) CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERBS, on the contrary, do not express a qualification descriptive of the action denoted by the verb, but express a circumstance which rather modifies the whole assertion than completes the part of the predicate contained in the verb; and the adjective implied in these circumstantial adverbs, when one is implied, is often a determinative.

ARRANGEMENT Of Adverbs.—(20) The adverb which modifies an adjective or another adverb is generally placed before the word which it modifies. The adverb enough is an exception; it follows the adjective which it modifies; as, He is wise enough, He is rich enough.

(21) The descriptive adverb is most generally placed after the verb which it modifies; as, This man acted wisely. (22) But the circumstantial adverbs admit of much greater freedom of arrangement. (23) They often take the first place in the proposition, especially adverbs of time, as, always, sometimes, often, never; and adverbs of order, as, first, secondly, &c. The same is true of the equivalent noun and preposition modifications; at all times, at no time, in the first place, in the second place, &c. (24) When never is placed first, the subject and verb are generally transposed; as, "Never was a man so used."

The circumstantial adverb, especially when thus placed before the verb, is also, like the noun and preposition so placed, often separated by interpunction from the other parts of the proposition, by a comma after, if it comes first in order; by a comma both before and after, when part of the proposition precedes and part follows it.

(25) As a general rule in reference to the arrangement of adverbs, those adverbs which modify a particular word in a proposition must be so placed, in order to secure perspicuity, that the reader cannot mistake the word which they are intended to modify.

(26) Adverbs, when employed to connect propositions, are necessarily placed at the beginning of the modifying proposition which they unite to the principal proposition. Such adverbs we shall notice hereafter under

(19) What is here said of the circumstantial adverbs?]

(20) Where is the adverb which modifies an adjective or an adverb placed? Mention the exception.

(21) What is said of the arrangement of the descriptive adverb, or adverb of manner? [(22) What is said of the arrangement of the circumstantial adverb ?

(23) What place do circumstantial adverbs often take in the proposition?

(24) What inversion usually happens when a proposition commences with the adverb

never? What is said of interpunction ?]

(25) Repeat the general rule in reference to the arrangement of adverbs.

(26) What is said of the place of conjunctive adverbs, and interrogative adverbs?

the name of Conjunctive Adverbs, when we come to treat of conjunctions. Adverbs used in interrogation are also placed first in the interrogative proposition.

We may here enumerate and classify some of the principal circumstantial adverbs. It would be useless to attempt to enumerate the adverbs of manner, or descriptive adverbs, such is their multitude; and they seem to need no classification.

Among the circumstantial adverbs we enumerate

(30) We might add interrogative adverbs as a class. Some of these

(c) It has become so common to employ here, there, where, instead of hither, thither, whither, when we express motion to a place, that it would scarcely be safe to call such expressions as Come here, go there, Where are you going? ungrammatical. The proper old forms of expression, Come hither, Go thither, Whither are you going? seem likely to become altogether obsolete, especially in colloquial discourse.

Hence, means from this place; thence, from that place, &c., without the employment of a preposition. Most grammarians declare against From hence, From whence, &c., as improper forms of expression. Yet these forms are found in our best authors, and even in the pages of those who denounce them as ungrammatical. In colloquial discourse, they are constantly used.

[(27) Repeat the enumeration of the adverbs of place.

(28) The adverbs of time.

(29) The adverbs of order.

(30) Repeat the remark about the interrogative adverbs.]

are circumstantial, as, Why, wherefore, when, where; some express manner interrogatively, as, how in what manner.

EXERCISE I., II., &c.-Form propositions containing examples, 1st, of adverbs of place; 2d, of adverbs of time; 3d, of adverbs of order, &c.

§ 72. FORMATION OF ADVERBS.

§ 72. DERIVATION and FormatioN OF ADVERBS.-(1) Some of the adverbs may be regarded as primitive words, since they are always employed in the present use of the language as adverbs, and are not derived from any other known word. These, however, form but a small proportion of this very extensive class of words, and even these were probably at an earlier date nouns or adjectives. We give as examples, Here, there, then, now.

(2) A large proportion of our adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives, by adding the termination ly; as, from virtuous is formed the adverb virtuously; from wise, wisely, &c. (3) An adverb of this sort may be accounted an abbreviated method of expressing the adjective which it involves, together with the word manner, preceded by the preposition in. Thus, Virtuously — In a virtuous manner, Wisely In a wise manner, &c.

=

(4) The adverbs of order are also formed by adding ly to the several ordinal numbers, second, third, fourth, &c. Adverbs, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. Firstly has also been sometimes used, but instead of this form we now employ first, both as ordinal adjective and adverb of order. Secondly, thirdly, &c., are equivalent to In the second place, In the third place, &c.

(5) There are some irregularities in the formation of these adverbs in ly. From adjectives ending in le, adverbs are formed by omitting the final e and adding y. Thus from able, is formed ably, from simple, simply, &c. These may be regarded as contracted and softened forms, for the more uncouth words, ablely, simplely, &c. (6) When the adjective ends in e, the e is often omitted; as, due, duly, true, truly. Here the e is preceded by a vowel. When it is preceded by a consonant, it is generally retained; as, sole, solely, servile, servilely, &c., but whole, makes wholly. When the adjective ends in ll, one is omitted in the adverb; as, full, fully, &c. But these are matters of spelling rather than of grammar.

§ 72. (1) What is said of primitive adverbs? Give examples. (2) How are many of the adverbs of manner formed? Examples. (3) How adverbs be considered? Example.

may such

(4) What is said of the formation of adverbs of order? Examples. [(5) Repeat what is said of the irregularity in the formation of adverbs from adjectives in le, and give examples. (6) Repeat remarks as to those formed from adjectives ending in e preceded by a vowel, and in e preceded by a consonant. Give the examples.

EXERCISES.-Give examples of adverbs formed from adjectives.

(7) Many adjectives are employed in our language adverbially-generally as adverbs of manner-some noun being suppressed, which the mind of the hearer is expected to supply. We may give as examples of adjectives often so employed, the words better, best, worse, worst; as, He acted better, best, worse, worst-expressions equivalent to He acted in a better manner, in the best manner, &c.

(8) It often happens that an adjective preceded by a preposition is used adverbially. Examples: In vain In a vain manner; In short-in a short way or manner; In general-In a general way or manner. In some cases the ellipsis cannot be so easily supplied. For example, at least, at most, at all, &c. In such expressions a whole proposition is sometimes left to be supplied by the hearer or reader; and what proposition, or what words, we must ascertain in each particular case from the connection of the discourse. The easiest (though certainly not the most satisfactory) way of treating such abbreviated expressions is to call them, as the grammarians generally have done, adverbial phrases.

EXERCISES.-Propositions containing what are called adverbial phrases; always supply the noun in analysis.

Whether

THE NEGATIVE NOT.-(9) There are several words commonly classed among the adverbs which do not come, as it seems to us, within any definition which has been given of this species of words. One of these is the negative particle NOT. This can scarcely with propriety be called a modifying word. we consider it as affecting, exclusively, the assertive force of the verb, or as affecting the predicate (including the part of the predicate contained in the verb), it cannot, in strict propriety of language, be said to modify that which it serves rather completely to reverse or exclude. We prefer to call it by a name peculiar to itself, the negative particle.

(10) In reference to the use of the negative NOT, the learner will remember that in what is now recognised as the correct usage of our language, this word always reverses the sense of the

(7) What is said of adjectives employed in our language as adverbs of manner? Mastrate by examples.

(8) Repeat what is said of (the so-called) adverbial phrases, illustrating by examples.] (9) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to the word NOT.

(10) State the remark in reference to the use of the negative not, (11) In what cases is