both where a pronoun serves as objective modification, and where other nouns perform the same function. Examples, “Him the Almighty power hurled headlong."-Milton. "Such place eternal justice had prepared," &c.-Id. "There the companions of his fall—he soon discerns.”—Id. (19) In some cases the poets have placed the objective between the subject noun and the verb. We find two examples given by Mr. G. Brown. "His daring foe securely him defied."-Milton. "The broom its yellow leaf hath shed."-Langhorne.

(20) We have already remarked in treating of the passive voice, or passive form of verbs, that the passive object of the verb actively used, becomes the subject of the verb passively employed. That is, the noun which serves as the objective modification in the active form of expression, becomes the subject in the passive form of expression. We have also observed that only those verbs which take this species of modification, and consequently admit of a passive form, are recognised as active verbs. We have three additional remarks yet to make in reference to this form of modification.

(21) 1st. Many verbs classed as neuter, that is, which express an action which terminates in the subject, can take after them, as objective modification, a noun of kindred meaning; thus we say, to sleep the sleep of death. To run a race. The sun runs his annual course. That man lives a life of usefulness. Fight the good fight. Hence, too, we can say passively, His race is run. The battle is fought. Such expressions as, "The brooks ran nectar," "The trees wept gums," &c., may be referred to this usage. (22) 2d. Some verbs which, in their simple form are neuter, by taking a particle into combination with them so as to form a compound, or by taking a particle after them, come to admit of an objective modification, and of a passive use. Thus look is neuter in such expressions as your friend looks well, looks tired, &c. But to overlook takes an objective modification, and can be used passively; as the tower OVERLOOKS the PLAIN. man is overlooked by his former acquaintance. To go is neuter, expresses an action which terminates in the subject, and takes no objective modifica tion except sometimes one of kindred meaning, agreeably to the preceding remark, as, He goes a journey. But undergoes and underwent, its past tense, require an objective modification like other verbs, and are sometimes used passively, as, He undergoes danger; Danger is undergone by

The

(19) Give examples of the objective modification interposed between the subject noun and the verb.

(20) Repeat the substance of what is said about the passive form. (21) Repeat the substance of 1st remark, and give the examples, (22) Do the same in regard to the 2d remark.

him. The same may be said of understana, compounded of under and the neuter verb stand. So also smiles is neuter, and smiles on may be considered active, since it can be used passively. Fortune smiles on us; We are smiled on by fortune.

(23) 3d. Active verbs are often used without an objective modification after them. Thus we say, That boy neither reads nor writes, John writes well, The prince governed with mildness. Here the verbs are all active, but are used absolutely, that is, without restriction to any particular object; though some appropriate object less or more definite is implied. (24) Verbs employed in this way must not be confounded with those which are sometimes employed in a neuter and sometimes in an active sense. This latter class, as we before observed, § 28: 17-23, are originally neuter, and when they become active it is in a distinct sense-often a causative sense, as, To run-neuter, To run a horse-active-To make a horse run. But active verbs used absolutely, retain the same sense as when followed by an objective modification. We call a verb active because it generally takes an objective modification, not because such modification is always indispensable to express complete sense.

(25) In § 11: 17, we stated that the verbal nouns ending in ing, and the infinitives admit the same complements as the kindred verbs, besides taking (especially the verbal in ing), the complements peculiar to nouns. The same may be said of the verbal adjective or imperfect participle in ing. (26) All these are active when the verb to which they are allied is active, and take after them an objective modification to complete their meaning. For example: MAKING CLOTHES is the tailor's employment; To MAKE CLOTHES is the tailor's employment; That man MAKING CLOTHES is a tailor. Here the noun clothes is the objective modification in the first example of the verbal noun in ING making, in the second of the infinitive to make, and in the third of the participle in ING. (27) The perfect participle in combination with the verb have, forming the perfect tense active, is also followed by an objective complement; but this is perhaps to be considered rather the complement of have, than of the participle. (28) In practical analysis it may be treated as the complement of the compound verb, without determining to which of the compound elements it properly belongs. (29) The perfect participle when used alone, or in the formation of the passive, does not admit the objective complement. (30) But, with this exception,

(23) Repeat 3d remark, and examples. (24) Repeat the caution, and state the distinction between active verbs used absolutely and verbs which are both active and neuter.

(25) What has been stated in reference to verbals? (26) In what are they like the verbs to which they are allied? Give example and illustration. (27) What is said of the perfect participle in combination with the verb to have? (28) How may we treat such combinations in practical analysis? (29) What is said of the perfect participle used alone or in forming the passive? (30) What is asserted of all verbals, with the exception stated?]

all these verbals may be considered as susceptible of the modifications of their kindred verbs, whether these verbs may be of the active, or of the neuter class (b)

EXERCISES.-Analyze the following propositions. All the words in Italics may be disposed of by the help of the instruction already given in the preceding pages. The learner may be allowed to omit the words in Roman characters on first going over the book. The abbreviation Obj. Mn., may be employed in written exercises to represent objective modification.

EXERCISE I.-John's brother loves him. James wrote a letter. Peter, the

farmer's boy, drove the horses. The Romans conquered England. The Greeks planted many colonies. The father received his son's letter. Fever produces thirst. George's farm produces abundant crops. Industry overcomes difficulties. Misery loves company. Telling falsehoods destroys a man's reputation. To relieve distress is that virtuous man's occupation. John finding his brother led him home.

ORAL ANALYSIS.-John's brother loves him. The subject is John's brother, consisting of subject noun brother, singular number modified or limited by John's genitive case modification. The predicate is loves him, consisting of loves, verb active, indefinite tense, third person singular, modified by the objective pronoun him.

EXERCISE II., III., &c.—Form a given number of propositions with objective modifications attached to the verbs.

§ 58. INFINITIVE MODIFICATION.-(1) The infinitive or verbal is frequently used as an objective modification of verbs. (2) We have examples in John loves to play, William wishes to write a letter. Here it is plain that to play and to write, with its accompaniment a letter, stand exactly in the same relation to the verbs loves and wishes, as any other noun used as objective complement.

(3) Many verbs which can take no other noun as an objective modification, can be completed by infinitives. (4) To this class

(b) For further explanation of this matter, see Ex. Gram. Struct. of the Eng. Lang., p. 204.

§ 58. (1) For what purpose is the infinitive often employed? (2) Examples and illus

trations.

(3) Repeat remark in reference to verbs which take only this kind of objective modification. (4) Specify verbs of this class. (5) How may the objective infinitive be distinguished!

belong several of the auxiliary verbs, which, with the help of an infinitive, form the compound tenses. (5) When the infinitive serves as an objective modification, it may be distinguished, like other objective modifications, by answering to the question WHAT? As in the example above, if we ask WHAT does John love? The answer is to play.

(6) Many verbs take after them infinitives to complete them, which infinitives cannot be considered as standing to the verb in the relation of objective modifications. (7) We may here notice one use of the infinitive after verbs, very common in our language, and very distinct from an objective modification; we mean the infinitive employed to express a purpose or an end; as, He came to see you-He came for the purpose of seeing you. He reads to learn-He reads for the purpose of learning. This kind of expressions cannot be translated by the infinitives of other languages, at least without a preposition expressive of purpose prefixed to them.

(8) Formerly, the preposition for was often prefixed to the infinitive when employed in this manner; as in Acts 17: 26. "And hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth.” "What went ye out for to see?"—Luke 7: 26. The use of the particle for before these infinitives is still common in the language of the uneducated; but a regard to elegance, rather than to precision, has led the educated to stamp this form of expression as vulgar.

(9) The infinitive used as an objective modification, we may distinguish by the name of the OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE, and the infinitive used to express purpose by the name of the INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE. (10) The learner may readily distinguish the objective infinitive by the fact that the verbal noun in ing, without a particle prefixed, may be substituted for it without destroying the sense. Thus, in the proposition, The boy learns TO READ, we may substitute the verbal noun reading for the infinitive to read, without materially affecting the sense; The boy learns READING.

(11) On the other hand, in the example, The boy reads to learn, we cannot make this kind of substitution without entirely destroying the sense.

[(6) Do all infinitives stand in the objective relation to the verbs which they complete? (7) Mention a use of infinitives distinct from the objective use, and illustrate by examples. (8) What word was often placed before this kind of infinitive in English? Give examples and remarks on this usage.

(9) By what names may we distinguish these two kinds of infinitives? (10) How may the learner know the objective infinitive? Illustrate by an example.

(11) If we make the substitution of the verbal in ING for the infinitive of purpose what

(12) This INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE may be distinguished by the fact that we can place the words in order before it, without injury to the sense, generally with advantage as regards perspicuity. The boy reads IN ORDER to learn. (13) But if we introduce these words before an objective infinitive we either destroy or change the sense. Thus, The boy learns in order to read is either unmeaning, ungrammatical, or means something different from The boy learns to read. (14) It is generally easier to distinguish these infinitives by the fact that as the objective infinitive answers to the question what? the infinitive of purpose answers to the question For what purpose? or, In order to what?

(15) Infinitives are also used after neuter verbs, especially the verb to be, in the same way as other nouns complementary of neuter verbs. (16) For example, To be virtuous is TO BE happy. Here the first to be is the subject noun, and the second to be is the infinitive complementary of the verb is To obey is to enjoy. Here to obey is the subject and to enjoy, infinitive complementary of the verb is.

(17) We may then recognise at least four distinct uses of the infinitive after verbs, which we may call respectively, the objective infinitive, the infinitive of purpose, the infinitive complementary of the neuter verb, and the infinitive complementary of the active verb to be considered in the next seetion. Under these four classes we may rank (with perhaps a few exceptions) the infinitives which follow verbs, and most of those, too, which follow other words. (a)

It will not be necessary for the learner, in passing through a first course in this book, to take notice of these distinctions. He may call all complementary infinitives, that is, all infinitives not employed as subject nouns, infinitive modifications, or complements of verbs, nouns, or adjectives, according as they modify one or other of these classes of words.

(18) Some verbs take after them exclusively the infinitive without the particle to prefixed. (19) Of this class are the verbs called auxiliaries, employed in forming the compound tenses. (20) Besides these, the following

(a) See Expos. Gram. Struct. Eng. Lang., pp. 207-8, and note.

happens? (12) How may we distinguish the infinitive of purpose? (13) Can we introduce the words in order before an objective infinitive? (14) How may these two uses of infinitives be more easily distinguished in most cases?

(15) What is said of infinitives used with neuter verbs? (16) Give examples. Repeat illustration.

(17) How many distinct uses of the infinitive after verbs may be recognised, and how may they be named respectively?

(18) What form of the infinitive do some verbs take after them?

(19) What class always takes the form without the particle to? (20) What other verbs take the same form of the infinitive after them?