as it is commonly called) ends in s, the genitive plural agrees with it in sound, and in the spoken language can be distinguished from it by the sense alone. (21) In the written language, the genitive plural is distinguished from the nominative plural by an apostrophe (') placed after the final s of the nominative; as, On EAGLES' wings, The FRIENDS' meeting house; equivalent to, On the wings of eagles, The meeting house of the Friends.

(22) The same method of distinguishing the genitive singular is also adopted in the written language, when the singular form of the noun ends in ss; as, For righteousness' sake. (23) The apostrophe is also placed after some other words ending in an s sound, to indicate the genitive; as, For conscience' sake.

(24) In the spoken language, we sometimes form the genitive of singu lar nouns (generally proper names) ending in an s sound, by adding the syllable es; as, James' kite, pronounced Jamzez kite. (25) Perhaps such forms should be spelled as they are pronounced, with es added to the nomi native, or rather with 's, to distinguish them from plural forms; as, James's Thomas's, Douglas's. (26) Some authors add the 's to such nouns—some the apostrophe alone. (27) To one noun ending in ss, we find the 's sometimes added—namely, witness; thus, The WITNESS's veracity. (b)

(28) REMARK.-Let the learner carefully remember, that in writing genitive cases, the mark called apostrophe (') is an essential part of the modern spelling. To omit it is as much an error in orthography, as to omit a letter in a word.

(6) In proper names ending in s, the genitive case is very generally the same with the nominative in the spoken language. This applies particularly to Greek and Latin proper names. In the written language, an apostrophe is placed after the s, but in speaking the genitive is not distinguished from the nominative. Examples: "Achilles' wrath;" "Atreus' royal line;" Olympus' lofty tops;" "Thetis' godlike son;" "Pirithous' fame;"""Briseis' charms," &c. This form of expression is generally avoided in prose, and the Norman construction adopted; thus, The wrath of Achilles, &c.

66

We have examples of similarly formed genitives of Scripture proper

the spoken language when the nominative plural ends in 8? (21) How is it distinguished from the nominative in the written language? Give the examples.

[(22) Repeat the observation in reference to singular nouns ending in 88. (23) Do any singular words besides those in 88 form the genitive in the same way?

(24) What is said of some singular nouns taking the syllable es in their genitive in the spoken language? (25) How should such genitives perhaps be written? (26) Are authors agreed in this matter? (27) What is said of the noun witness?]

(28) Repeat the remark about spelling.

$55 DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND Pronouns.—(1) We now propose to exhibit what is called the declension of nouns; that is, the regular arrangement of their cases of the singular and plural forms. (2) The declension of nouns (leaving out of view the pronouns), if we admit only the cases which possess distinct forms,

(3) We shall, however, for reasons which will appear hereafter, exhibit the declensions so as to accord with the structure of the ancient Anglo-Saxon, and the sister languages of the north of Europe, and substantially with the Greek and Latin. (4) In doing this we add two cases to those already enumerated, but which in form (save in the class of pronouns) are always the same with the nominative. (5) One of these we call, following the old name, the ACCUSATIVE case. (6) English grammarians have very generally called it the OBJECTIVE case, because its chief function is to express the passive OBJECT of an active verb. (7) The second additional case we call also by the old name, the Dative case. This case is sometimes used to express what is called the personal object of a verb, the same which is more generally expressed by the noun preceded by the particle to. (a)

names; as, "Jesus' sake;" "Moses' law." These names in the early edi tions of the authorised version, as well as in the versions of Tyndale, Cranmer, and that of Geneva, are printed without the apostrophe, and were undoubtedly, pronounced in the same manner as the nominative; and, we believe, they are generally so pronounced at the present day. The use of the apostrophe, in making genitives, was introduced much later than the age of the translators.

(a) We might add a fifth case, and so conform more completely to the

$55. (1) What is meant by the declension of a noun? (2) Decline the nouns man and friend, as given above, spelling them afterwards, including the apostrophe as part of the spelling.

(3) How do we propose to exhibit the declensions? (4) What additional cases are introduced? (5) What is one of these cases called? (6) Why is it called by some the objective case? (7) What is the second additional case called, and what is its function?

We subjoin the Declension of the Personal Pronouns. (9) It will be seen that most of these have a form for the accusative and dative, distinct from the form of the nominative. (10) It will also be seen that neither the genitive form nor the accusative form of these pronouns is in most cases regularly derived from the nominative.

ancient models of declension, calling it the vocative. A noun is said to be in the vocative or case of address, when it is used in calling upon the person represented by the noun. But, as the noun used in address does not enter into the structure of propositions, but serves simply as the means of calling the attention of the party addressed, and gives no occupation to the student of grammatical analysis, save to name it and tell its use, we omit it in the model of declension. See further remarks, Ex. Gram. Struct. Eng. Lang., pp. 184-5.

See additional observations on the Personal Pronouns in our larger treatise, § 155,

EXERCISE on the Formation of the Genitive Case.-Write the following nouns in the Genitive Case, followed by such nouns as they can appropriately modify. Man, singular and plural. Brother. Brothers. Brethren. Hero, singular and plural. William. James. Agnes. Mary. The tailor. The shoemaker. The carpenter. My father. Mother. Wisdom. Beauty. Virtue. Goodness, &c. Each of these may be applied as genitive modifications of several other nouns, if this should be thought expedient.

§ 56. We now return to the enumeration of the several modifications of nouns and verbs.

THE GENITIVE MODIFICATION. (1) We direct our attention first to that modification of the noun which consists of a noun in the genitive case prefixed to limit it. (2) This we call the Genitive Case Modification of the Noun. (3) Or, more briefly, the Genitive Modification (abbreviated, Gen. Mn.) (4) The noun in the genitive case usually expresses what stands in the relation of possessor (or some kindred relation) to what the noun which it modifies expresses. We give a number of examples which the learner will analyze as an exercise. We employ Italics to mark the words which the learner is prepared by the instructions already given to analyze. He may pass over, for the present, the words printed in Roman characters.

(5) Let it be remembered that this, as well as the other modifications, is not limited to the noun employed as subject noun, but may be applied to a noun whatever function it happens to perform in the construction of a proposition.

EXAMPLES TO SERVE AS AN EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS.-His father's house stands a ruin. In God's sight, man's strength is weakness; man's wisdom is folly; man's hopes are vanity. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness;

(8) Decline brother, afterwards spelling and noting the place of the apostrophe. (9) What remark in reference to the accusative and dative forms of the personal pronouns? (10) Repeat remark in reference to the formation of the cases of pronouns, (11) Decline separately each of the personal pronouns.

$56. (1) Describe the modification of the noun here first presented. (2) How do we name this modification? (3) Give a shorter name, and the abbreviation. (4) Repeat what is said of the noun in the genitive case.

(5) Repeat remark.

her paths are peace. Prayer is the contrite sinner's voice. Minerva's tem ple stood a landmark to the mariner. That man's haste to grow rich became the cause of his reverses. The fool's prosperity becomes his destruction, William's energy secured him an indepen

John's escape seemed a miracle. dence.

(9) In

(6) The principal noun in this species of construction is often suppressed, when clearly indicated by the modifying noun in the genitive case. (7) Thus, St. Paul's, St. Peter's, &c,, are used to signify the churches named in honor of the Apostles Paul and Peter; The bookseller's, The stationer's, The grocer's, instead of The bookseller's shop, The stationer's shop, &c. (8) The genitive cases mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are never, in the present usage of the language, followed by the noun which they limit. other words, these genitive forms are never used except when (to avoid ungraceful repetition) we wish to suppress the principal noun. (10) Thus we say, That book is MINE, OURS, YOURS, HERS, &c., to avoid the ungraceful repe tition of book in the predicate of the proposition, which would be necessary if we employed the forms my, our, your, &c., That book is my book; except we omit (as is often done) the noun of the subject, and say, That is my book, (11) This is the real distinction between the forms mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, on the one hand, and my, our, thy, your, her, their, on the other; the first-mentioned class are always used when the principal noun—the noun which they limit-is suppressed, the last-mentioned when the principal noun is expressed. (12) It follows that mine, ours, &c., (and all other genitive cases when the principal noun is suppressed), serve not only to limit the principal noun, but to indicate it. (13) Thus in the example, That knife is MINE, mine at once indicates knife, and limits it: That knife is my knife, where knife is denoted by its own name, and limited by the determinative my. So, in the example, I called at your FATHER's this morning, the genitive case father's at once indicates and limits the principal noun house.

(14) The genitive case thus indicating the principal noun, which it limits, often stands in the place of subject noun in a proposition, and of the noun complementary of the neuter verb. (15) For example: Your horse runs fast, but MINE runs faster, and our FRIEND's runs faster than either. Here

[(6) What often happens in reference to the principal noun in this construction? (7) Repeat examples. (8) What is said in reference to the genitive cases, mine, ours, &c.? (9) Vary the expression. (10) Repeat examples, and illustrate them. (11) State the real distinction between mine, ours, thine, yours, &c., on the one hand and my, our, thy, your, &c., on the other. (12) What follows from what has been said of mine, ours, &c.? (18) Repeat the illustration by an example of a genitive case of a pronoun and of a common noun. (14) What purposes does the genitive case thus come to serve? (15) Repeat examples and illustration.