INTRODUCTION.

(1) If we examine attentively any assemblage of words which conveys a complete thought to the human mind, we shall soon discover that the services performed by the several words are not of the same kind. (2) In order to illustrate this fact, let us take an example of the simplest form-one in which only two words are employed to convey a thought: Water freezes. Here we have the word water, which serves as the name of a well known object, and freezes, which serves to express what is said of the water. (3) The parts which these two words perform in expressing the thought are clearly distinct in their nature; the one serves to represent that of which we speak the subject of our thought, by the help of the other we express what we think, in the case before us, of this subject. (4) Neither of these words will alone express a complete thought -complete sense. (5) And no assemblage of words which, like water, express mere subjects of thought, can serve to convey a complete thought. On the other hand, no assemblage of words, like freezes, which we use to express what we think of a subject, can convey complete sense, without the assistance of words of the other

(1) What shall we find, when we examine attentively any assemblage of words which conveys a complete thought? (2) Repeat the example and the illustration. (3) Describe the parts which the two words perform. (4) Will either alone express complete sense? (5) Will any assemblage of words like the word water used alone express

class. (6) From this fact, that the language in which we clothe our thoughts is not made up of an assemblage of words of one uniform kind, but of words serving distinct purposes in the forms of expression which we use, arises what is called STRUCTURE in language.

(7) The explanation of this structure, and the classification and description of the several kinds of words employed in building up this structure, constitute the chief business of the grammarian. (8) We shall, therefore, that the learner may understand clearly from the beginning the object proposed in studying grammar, commence with the explanation of those forms of expression which convey a complete thought, and of the several parts essential to the construction of such expressions. (9) From this we shall naturally pass to the classification and description of the words which serve to constitute these distinct parts of an organized expression of thought.

EXERCISE.-Let the pupil be required to furnish a number of words which, like the word water, express the names of some of the objects most familiar to him; and let him try whether by the help of such words alone he can express any thought, any complete sense. In like manner, let him furnish words like the word freezes, by which we express what we think of the objects around us, and try whether with them he can express complete sense. After this trial he will be prepared to enter with us, in the first chapter, on the study of propositions.

complete sense?

Will any assemblage of words like the word freezes? (6) What follows from this fact?

(7) What constitutes the chief business of the grammarian? (8) With what subject does this treatise commence? Tell the reason assigned. (9) To what subject shall we next pass?

CHAPTER I.

OF PROPOSITIONS.

1. (1) A combination or assemblage of words which expresses complete sense is called a PROPOSITION.

(2) We may divide propositions into three classes. (3) First, propositions employed to assert or declare something; these we call assertive propositions; example, George studies. (4) Second, propositions employed to interrogate or ask questions; these we call interrogative propositions; example, does George study? (5) Third, propositions employed to express commands, entreaties, &c.; these we call imperative (that is commanding). propositions; examples, study, persevere, &c.

(6) The assertive or declarative proposition claims our first and chief attention. (7) It is the most simple; it is complete, containing all the parts essential to every form of proposition fully expressed; and it recurs most frequently in discourse.

§ 2. (1) The three following parts may be distinguished in every assertive proposition when fully expressed. (2) First, some means of indicating the person or thing of which we speak, or make the assertion. This is called the SUBJECT of the proposition. (3) Second, a means of expressing what is intended to be

§1. (1) Describe a proposition. (2) Into how many classes may propositions be divided? (3) Describe and name the first class, and give an example. (4) Describe and namə the second class; give example. (5) The same as to the third class.

(6) Which kind of propositions claims our first and chief attention? (7) Mention the reasons assigned for considering this form first.

§2. (1) How many parts may be distinguished in every completely expressed proposition? (2) What is the subject of a proposition? Ans. That about which the assertion contained in the proposition is made. (3) What is the predicate of a proposition? Ans.

asserted or said or declared of the subject. This is called the PREDICATE of the proposition. (4) The word predicate means what is said or asserted. And, third (5), a means of indicating that the predicate is intended to be asserted of the subject. This is what the logicians call the COPULA-that is to say, what couples, connects, or unites the subject and predicate. (6) In our language, the subject, however simple and unmodified, is usually expressed by at least one separate word in assertive propositions. (a) (7) The copula is never expressed by a separate word. (8) The copula and predicate (or the leading part of the predicate) are united in the same word. Otherwise; The word which expresses the predicate, or leading part of the predicate, is so modified (that is, assumes such a form, or receives such place in the arrangement of the proposition), as, in accordance with the usages of language, to indicate assertion in assertive propositions, interrogation in interrogative propositions, &c.

(9) The predicate and copula united, since they are essential constituents of the proposition, must always be fully expressed in every complete independent proposition by a word of that class' which the usage of language has assigned for this purpose. (10) Two words, then, are necessary, in our language, to the full expression of an assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition—

(a) There are a few, very few exceptions; and even these occur in forms of expression now rarely employed-such as, for example, methinks, meseems, melisteth. These we shall consider in their proper place. On the contrary, in imperative propositions, the subject is usually suppressed;> for example, Go to the door; Bring me a book, &c. In such propositions as these, no mistake can arise from the suppression of the subject, since the party addressed-the person or persons spoken to-is in our language almost always the subject.

That which is asserted of the subject. (4) What does the word predicate mean? (5) What is meant by the copula of a proposition? Ans. That which indicates that the predicate is asserted of the subject.

(6) How is the subject of an assertive proposition usually expressed in our language? (†) Is the copula expressed by a separate word? (8) How then is it indicated? Ans. "The predicate is so modified," &c.-repeating as above.

(9) Are the united predicate and copula always expressed in an independent proposition? (10) How many words are necessary in our language to the full expression of an assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition?

one to express the subject, and another to express the united predicate and copula.

(11) When two or more propositions, having the same common subject, or the same predicate, are united together, the common subject or predicate is very generally suppressed in one or more of them. (12) For example, John reads and writes to John reads, and John writes. Here the subject of the latter proposition is suppressed by the usage of language, and left to be supplied from the preceding one. John and James write = to John writes, and James writes. Here the predicate and copula are only once expressed, but in such a way as to indicate that the assertion reaches both subjects. Sometimes, in a proposition connected with a preceding proposition, only the modifying words are repeated, and both subject and predicate with copula, are to be supplied from the other proposition. For example: "They (power and riches) keep off the summer shower, not the winter storm": to They keep off the summer shower, they keep not off the winter storm. (13) But this forms no real exception to what we have asserted above. The subject or predicate, in such cases, is simply suppressed, left to be supplied by the understanding of the hearer or reader. It is not indicated or contained under the form of the part of the proposition expressed. They are not, therefore, complete independent propositions. (14) When, in certain languages, a whole proposition is expressed by a single word, the subject of the proposition is indicated by the form and inflection of the word which expresses the united predicate and copula.

§ 3. We are now prepared to commence the analysis of the most simple form of propositions; namely, those which consist of two words, one representing the subject, and the other the united copula and predicate of the proposition. [(1) By the analysis of a proposition we mean the separation of its parts for the purpose of distinct examination.] Let us take, as an example for analysis, the expression, Snow melts. (2) These two words form a proposition, because they express a complete assertion. (3) The word

[(11) What sometimes happens when two or more propositions having the same subject or the same predicate are united together? (12) Give examples. (18) Show that this is not a real exception to what is said above. (14) When a whole proposition, as in some languages, is expressed by a single word, how is the subject indicated?]

§8. (1) What is meant by the analysis of a proposition? (2) Why are the words snow melts" said to form a proposition? (8) In the proposition “snow melts " point out