the Romish church, became accustomed to the ideas, that the apocalyptic Babylon was in some sense or other not only Pagan but Papal Rome: and that Antichrist was to sit, whether as an usurper or not, on the throne of the Papacy.

8. I pass over less remarkable names, which will be found composing an interesting series in Mr. Elliott's history, noticing as I pass, that such was the view held by the precursors and upholders of the Reformation by Wicliffe and his followers in England, by Luther in Germany, Bullinger in Switzerland, Bishop Bale in Ireland; by Fox the martyrologist, by Brightmann, Pareus, and early Protestant expositors generally.

9. As we advance in order of time, the same view holds its ground in the main among the Protestant churches. It is, with more or less individual varieties and divergences, that of Mede (1630), Jurieu (1685), Cressener (1690), Vitringa (1705), Daubuz (1720), Sir Isaac Newton (first published in 1733, after his death; but belonging to an earlier date), Whiston (1706), and the Commentators further on in that century, Bengel and Bishop Newton.

10. Mr. Elliott very naturally makes the great French Revolution a break, and the beginning of a new epoch, in the history of apocalyptic interpretation. From it, the continuous historical view seemed to derive confirmation and consistency, and acquired boldness to enter into new details, and fix its dates with greater precision.

11. Some of the more marked upholders of the view since that great Revolution have been divided among themselves as to the question, whether the expected second advent of our Lord is to be regarded as preceding or succeeding the thousand years' reign, or millennium. The majority both in number, and in learning and research, adopt the premillennial advent: following, as it seems to me, the plain and undeniable sense of the sacred text of the book itself.

12. It is not the purpose of the present Introduction to open controversial dispute with systems or with individuals. The following Commentary will shew how far our views agree with, how far they differ from, the school of which I am treating. With this caution, I cannot refrain from expressing my admiration of the research and piety which have characterized some of the principal modern Protestant expositors of this school. I must pay this tribute more especially to Mr. Elliott, from whose system and conclusions I am compelled so frequently and so widely to diverge.

Vol. iv. pp. 416 ff.

The statement made above in the text will account for my not having noticed in detail, with a view to refutation, Mr. Elliott's work, "Apocalypsis Alfordiana," published since the appearance of this volume of my Greek Testament. A careful perusal of that work has not altered my view on any of the points of interpretation whereon we differ. Its arguments are not formidable, consisting for the most part of

13. c. Our attention now passes to the Futurist school, consisting of those who throw forward the whole book, or by far the greater part of it, into the times of the great second Advent, denying altogether its historical significance.

14. Of these writers, some, who have been called the extreme futurists', deny even the past existence of the seven Asiatic churches, and hold that we are to look for them yet to arise in the last days: but the majority accept them as historical facts, and begin the events of the last days with the prophetic imagery in chap. iv. Some indeed expound the earlier seals of events already past, and then in the later ones pass at once onward to the times of antichrist.

15. The founder of this system in modern times (the Apostolic Fathers can hardly with fairness be cited for it, seeing that for them all was future) appears to have been the Jesuit Ribera, about A.D. 1580o. It has of late had some able advocates in this country. To it belong the respected names of Dr. Maitland, Dr. Todd, Mr. Burgh, Isaac Williams, and others.

16. I need hardly say that I cannot regard this scheme of interpretation with approval. To argue against it here, would be only to antici, pate the Commentary. It seems to me indisputable that the book does speak of things past, present, and future: that some of its prophecies are already fulfilled, some are now fulfilling, and others await their fulfilment in the yet unknown future: but to class all together and postpone them to the last age of the world, seems to me very like shrinking from the labours which the Holy Spirit meant us, and invites us, to undertake.

17. In the exposition of the Apocalypse attempted in this volume, I have endeavoured simply to follow the guidance of the sacred text, according to its own requirements and the analogies of Scripture. I am not conscious of having any where forced the meaning to suit my own prepossession: but I have in each case examined, whither the text itself and the rest of Scripture seemed to send me for guidance. If a definite meaning seemed to be pointed at in such guidance, I have upheld that meaning, to whatever school of interpretation I might seem thereby for the time to belong. If no such definite meaning seemed to be indicated,

confident re-assertion of the system which they uphold. In preparing the last edition of this portion of my Greek Testament, I began by inserting in the notes elaborate answers to them; but I found that thus my pages became burdened with matter merely controversial, and moreover that I could not continue this course consistently with the unfeigned respect, which I felt and wished to shew towards Mr. Elliott: the spirit of his book, which I forbear here from characterizing, rendering this wholly impossible.

7 e. g. the author of "The Jewish Missionary," and "The Sealed Book." • Elliott, vol. iv. pp. 465 ff.

I have confessed my inability to assign one, however plausible and attractive the guesses of expositors may have been.

18. The result of such a method of interpretation may be apparent want of system; but I submit that it is the only way which will conduct us safely as far as we go, and which will prevent us from wresting the text to make it suit a preconceived scheme. This latter fault seemed to me so glaring and so frequent in our expositors of the historical school, and inspired me with such disgust, that I determined my own pages should not contain a single instance of it, if I could help it. And I venture to hope that the determination has been carried out.

19. The course which I have taken, that of following the text itself under the guidance of Scripture analogy, naturally led to the recognition of certain landmarks, or fixed points, giving rise to canons of interpretation, which I maintain are not to be departed from. Such are for instance the following:

20. The close connexion between our Lord's prophetic discourse on the Mount of Olives, and the line of apocalyptic prophecy, cannot fail to have struck every student of Scripture. If it be suggested that such connexion may be merely apparent, and we subject it to the test of more accurate examination, our first impression will I think become continually stronger, that the two, being revelations from the same Lord concerning things to come, and those things being as it seems to me bound by the fourfold cry, Come, which introduces the seals, to the same reference to Christ's coming, must, corresponding as they do in order and significance, answer to one another in detail; and thus the discourse in Matt. xxiv. becomes, as Mr. Isaac Williams has truly named it, "the anchor of apocalyptic interpretation:" and, I may add, the touchstone of apocalyptic systems. If its guidance be not followed in the interpretation of the seals: if any other than our Lord is he that goes forth conquering and to conquer, then, though the subsequent interpretation may have occasional points of contact with truth, and may thus be in parts profitable to us, the system is an erroneous one, and, as far as it is concerned, the true key to the book is lost.

21. Another such landmark is found I believe in the interpretation of the sixth seal if it be not indeed already laid down in what has just been said. We all know what that imagery means in the rest of Scripture. Any system which requires it to belong to another period than the close approach of the great day of the Lord, stands thereby selfcondemned. I may illustrate this by reference to Mr. Elliott's continuous historical system, which requires that it should mean the downfall of Paganism under Constantine. A more notable instance of inadequate interpretation cannot be imagined.

22. Closely connected with this last is another fixed point in interpretation. As the seven seals, so the seven trumpets and the seven

vials run on to the time close upon the end. At the termination of each series, the note is unmistakeably given, that such is the case. Of the seals we have already spoken. As to the trumpets, it may suffice to refer to ch. x. 7, xi. 18: as to the vials, to their very designation "these last," and to the declaration "they are past," of ch. xvi. 17. Any system which does not recognize this common ending of the three, seems to me to stand thereby convicted of error.

23. Another such absolute requirement of the sacred text is found in the vision of ch. xii. 1 ff. In ver. 5, we read that the woman "brought forth a male child, who shall rule (shepherd) the nations with a rod of iron and her child was caught up to God and to His throne." All Scripture analogy and that of this book itself (compare ch. xix. 15) requires that these words should be understood of our incarnate Lord, and of no other. Any system seems to me convicted of error, which is compelled to interpret the words otherwise.

24. Another canon of interpretation has seemed to me to be deducible from the great care and accuracy with which the Seer distinguishes between the divine Persons and the ministering angels. Much confusion is found in the apocalyptic commentaries from this point not being attended to. "Is such or such an angel Christ Himself, or not?" is a question continually meeting us in their pages. Such a question need never to have been asked. An angel, throughout the book, is strictly and literally an angel: never our Lord, never one of the sons of men. This holds equally, I believe, of the angels of the seven churches and of the various angels introduced in the prophetic vision.

25. Other rules and requirements of the same kind will be found mentioned in the Commentary itself. It may be well to speak of some other matters which seem worthy of notice here.

26. The apocalyptic numbers furnish an important enquiry to every Commentator, as to their respective significance. And, in general terms, such a question can be readily answered. The various numbers seem to keep constant to their great lines of symbolic meaning, and may, without any caprice, be assigned to them. Thus seven is the number of perfection: seven spirits are before the throne (ch. i. 4; iv. 5): seven churches represent the church universal: the Lamb has seven horns and seven eyes (v. 6) in the several series of God's judgments, each of them complete in itself, each of them exhaustive in its own line of divine action, seven is the number of the seals, of the trumpets, of the thunders, of the vials.

27. Four, again, is the number of terrestrial extension. Four livingbeings are the celestial symbols of creation (iv. 6 ff.): four angels stand on the four corners of the earth, holding the four winds of heaven (ch. vii. 1): four seals, four trumpets, four vials, in each case complete the judgments as far as physical visitations are concerned: four angels are

loosed from the Euphrates to slay the destined portion out of all mankind (ix. 13 ff.), in obedience to a voice from the four corners of the altar: Satan deceives the nations in the four corners of the earth (xx. 8): the new Jerusalem lieth four-square, having all sides equal.

28. Twelve is the number especially appropriated to the Church, and to appearances symbolically connected with her. Twice twelve is the number of the heavenly elders: twelve times twelve thousand, the number of the scaled elect: the woman in ch. xii. 1 has a crown of twelve stars: the heavenly city has twelve gates, at the gates twelve angels, and on them the names of the twelve tribes of Israel; also twelve foundations, and on them the names of the twelve Apostles: and its circumference (probably see note, ch. xxi. 17) is twelve thousand stadii. Finally, in the midst of her the tree of life brings forth twelve manner of fruits.

29. The occurrence of aliquot portions of these numbers is also worthy of our attention. The half of seven, three and a half, is a ruling number in the apocalyptic periods of time. Three years and a half had been the duration of the drought prayed for by Elijah (see James v. 17, note: also Luke iv. 25): "a time, and times, and the dividing of time" was the prescribed prophetic duration of the oppression of the saints in Dan. vii. 25. Accordingly, we find in the Apocalypse (ch. xi. 2) that the two witnesses, one of whose powers is, to shut up heaven that there shall be no rain (xi. 6), shall prophesy 1260 days 3 x 360 + 180 three years and a half. And if this particular reminds us of Elijah, the other, the turning the water into blood and smiting the earth with plagues, directs our attention to Moses, whose testimony endured throughout the forty and two stations of the children of Israel's pilgrimage, as that of these witnesses is to endure forty and two months = 3 × 12 + 6 months = three years and a half. (Again, for three days and a half shall the bodies of these witnesses lie unburied in the street of the great city, after which they shall rise again.) The same period in days (1260) is the term during which the woman shall be fed in the wilderness (xii. 6). The same in months (42) is allotted (xiii. 5) to the power of the first wild-beast which ascended from the sea.

30. I have not pretended to offer any solution of these periods of time, so remarkably pervaded by the half of the mystic seven. I am quite unable to say, who the two witnesses are quite unable, in common with all apocalyptic interpreters, to point out definitely any period in the history of the church corresponding to the 1260 days of ch. xii. 6, or any in the history of this world's civil power which shall satisfy the forty-two months of ch. xiii. 5. As far as I have seen, every such attempt hitherto made has been characterized by signal failure. One after another, the years fixed on for the consummation by different authors have passed away, beginning with the 1836 of Bengel: one