3. Retrospective. This is chiefly found in history. It includes all which consist of a summing up—as in oratory; and also those conclusions in fiction where the characters are all recalled for a final appearance or final mention.

4. Emotional. Under this class are comprehended many perorations, such as those above mentioned. It is also found not unfrequently in works of fiction, as when a novel, written to further some cause, terminates with an appeal in favor of such cause.

5. Descriptive. This is found in narrative writing of all kinds, and sometimes in oratory, as above illustrated.

R

PART V.

THE EMOTIONS.

CHAPTER I.

THE BEAUTIFUL.

§ 407. THE INFLUENCE OF THE EMOTIONS IN LITERATURE.

THE influence of the emotions is as powerful in literature as in life. Men are guided not so much by reason as by passions, desires, or prejudices, and it is to these that the writer makes his most frequent and effective appeals. From these we may deduce the very origin of literature, which is supposed to appear at first as poetry in the form of religious hymns, inspired by such feelings as fear, veneration, or affection. Then follows narrative poetry, which displays the emotions in full force, as affecting the character and acts of men. Thus the intention of the Iliad is stated at the outset to be the wrath of Achilles; and that of the Odyssey is the return of Ulysses. In these poems there is the perpetual representation of human passion suited to every variety of character; the poet himself is subject to the power of the very feelings which he portrays; the hearer owns their sway; and both are swept onward by one common sympathy. Oratory arises at an early period, and in its origin and all its course is largely connected with the emotions. The speaker who should content himself with mere reasoning would find his argument as ineffective over a general audience as a mathematical proposition; it is only when he comes to his hearers with a glowing heart that he can properly affect them. Narrative in prose has the same connection with

the feelings. In history it is the display of human action intermingled with human passion that excites the reader's inter

Herodotus held his audience spell-bound at the Olympic games. Thucydides is unrivalled for impartiality; but the sympathy of the reader, not restricted to one side, turns with equal intensity to each of the contending parties. The modern historian has given up the exclusive treatment of battles and dynasties, and has taken up the wider theme of the growth of man; but in doing this the feelings are called into play as much as ever, and the interest, instead of being confined to kings and heroes, is spread over the humbler classes who form the people.

In the emotions may be found the true source of most of the higher qualities of style. Nearly all the figures of speech are associated with them to a greater or less extent. Vivacity indicates animation. Energy implies strength of feeling. The orator cannot be eloquent whose own heart is not stirred. It is by the power of the emotions that the imagination is stimulated, and is enabled to create the brightest forms of the beautiful or the loftiest conceptions of the sublime.

$408. CLASSIFICATION OF THE EMOTIONS.

The emotions comprehend all those sensations and feelings which are excited within the mind by certain causes peculiar to each, without the influence of the will.

They include the following:

1. The æsthetic emotions, or those which are subordinate to the taste as, The beautiful; the sublime; the ridiculous; the fantastic.

2. The desires. Love of self; love of life; love of wealth, or avarice; love of knowledge; love of fame; love of power; love of pre-eminence.

3. The affections. The family affections: Parental, fraternal, filial, conjugal; friendship; esteem; veneration; gratitude; patriotism; philanthropy; esprit de corps. The moral and religious affections.

4. The passions. These are twofold, involving attraction and repulsion: as, Love and hate; desire and aversion; happiness and misery; hope and fear.

These interchange so that it is difficult to draw the line be

tween desires, affections, and passions; but though a different classification might be preferable in a philosophical treatise, yet this is the most convenient for the purpose of considering their relations to literature.

§ 409. LITERARY ÆSTHETICS.

The term æsthetics is derived from aionais, perception, and is used to designate the science of the beautiful. By literary æsthetics is meant the examination of the beautiful in literature.

§ 410. THE BEAUTIFUL-THEORIES WITH REGARD TO IT. The beautiful has had many definitions, which vary in accordance with the theory held respecting it. The chief of these theories are as follows:

1. The objective. This theory ascribes the beautiful to certain qualities in the external world which affect the mind with pleasing emotions. Among the advocates of this may be mentioned Addison, Hogarth, Burke, Voltaire, D'Alembert, Montesquieu, Reid, Brown.

2. The subjective. This theory ascribes the beautiful to the action of the mind itself, and to no other cause. This is stated by Hume, who says, "Beauty is no quality in things themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them; and each mind perceives a different beauty." Among the advocates of this may be enumerated Hume, Schelling, Eastlake, Ruskin, Coleridge.

3. Objecto-subjective. This theory, as the name implies, is a compound of the two preceding. It asserts that there is in the mind an ideal notion of the beautiful, which is awakened to action by certain qualities in the external world. Among the supporters of this may be named Akenside, Reynolds, Winckelmann, Diderot, Cousin.

4. Associative. This theory teaches that external things have not the beautiful existing in them, but that they may produce within us various agreeable emotions, such as love, joy, peace, cheerfulness, satisfaction, and the like, which result in the emotion of the beautiful. This theory is sustained by Alison, Jeffrey, and others.

Various modifications of the above theories are to be found,

but all may be classified without much violence under one or another of them.

§ 411. DEFINITION OF THE BEAUTIFUL.

The definition of the beautiful which is most commonly received is in substance as follows:

The beautiful is an emotion of pleasure which is awakened in the mind by the perception of certain qualities in external things.

The beautiful is a compound emotion, including the absolute and the relative.

By the absolute beautiful is meant the ideal existing in the mind.

By the relative, the beautiful which is visible in external things.

Where the ideal is worked out, so as to become perceptible to the senses, there results the beautiful in art and in literature. There is a certain sensibility of the mind by which we cognize the beautiful, and this is called taste.

§ 412. TASTE.

Taste is possessed by all men, in all nations, races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of personal decoration; by the civilized man in his love of art; and every age of the world has left monuments which testify to this.

While it is thus universal, it is, however, as different among men as their faces, complexions, characters, or languages.

Races differ the Oriental from the European, the savage from the civilized. One loves what is rich and profuse in ornament, the other what is chaste and refined. The savage loves gaudy beads, and decorations of paint and feathers, while the civilized man is content with simpler attire. The universal love of ornament shows the universal existence of taste, and the fashions of these show its variation.

The Frenchman and the Englishman, the German and the Italian, the Russian and the Spaniard, have manifestations of taste peculiar to each nation, different each from the other. Each nation again shows variations among the different orders of society; the taste of the boor, the refined, the rustic, and the noble being quite distinct. Another illustration is afforded