plan. Each person who desired to purchase any portion of the public domain, selected a tract in such shape as suited his fancy, designating his boundaries by prominent objects, such as trees, rocks, streams, the banks of rivers and creeks, cliffs, ravines, etc. But, owing to the frequent indefiniteness of description, titles often conflicted with each other, and in many cases several grants covered the same premises.

To obviate these difficulties, in 1802, Col. Jared Mansfield, then surveyorgeneral of the Northwestern Territory, devised and adopted the present mode of surveying the public lands. This system was established by law, and is uniform in its application to all the public lands belonging to the United States.

By this method, all the lines are run by the cardinal points of the compass; the north and south lines coinciding with the true meridian, and the east and west lines intersecting them at right angles, giving to the tracts thus surveyed the rectangular form.

In the first place, certain lines are established running east and west, called Base Lines. Then, from noted points, such as the mouths of principal rivers, lines are run due north and south, which are called Principal Meridians. The Base Lines and Principal Meridians together, are called Standard Lines, as they form the basis of all the surveys made therein.

In order to distinguish from each other the system or series of surveys thus formed, the several Principal Meridians are designated by progressive numbers. The Meridian running north from the mouth of the Great Miami river, is called the First Principal Meridian; that running north through the State of Indiana, the Second Principal Meridian; that rnnning north from the mouth of the Ohio river through the State of Illinois, the Third Principal Meridian; that running north from the mouth of the Illinois river, through the States of Illinois and Wisconsin, the Fourth Principal Meridian; and that running north from the mouth of the Arkansas river, through the States of Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin, the Fifth Principal Meridian.

Having established the Standard Lines as above described, the country was then divided into equal squares as nearly as practicable, by a system of parallel meridians six miles distant from each other, crossed or intersected by lines east and west, also six miles from each other. Thus the country was divided into squares, the sides of which are six miles, and each square containing 36 square miles. These squares are called Townships. The lines of the townships running north and south are called Range Lines; and the rows or tiers of townships running north and south are called Ranges; tiers of townships east and west are called Townships; and the lines dividing these tiers are called Township Lines. Townships are numbered from the Base Line and the Principal Meridians. Thus the township in which Sioux City, Iowa, is located, is described as township No. 89 north, in range No. 47 west of the Fifth Principal Meridian. The situation of this township is, therefore, 528 miles (making no allowance for fractional townships) north of the Base Line, as there are 88 townships intervening between it and the Base Line; and being in range No. 47, it is 276 miles west of the Fifth Principal Meridian, as there are 46 ranges of townships intervening between it and the said Principal Meridian. The township adjoining on the north of 89 in range 47, is 90 in range 47; but the township adjoining on the west of 89 in range 47, is numbered 89 of range 48, and the one north of 89 of range 48, is 90 of range 48, and so on.

Some of the townships mentioned in this illustration, being on the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers, are fractional.

The lines and corners of the townships being established by competent surveyors, under the authority of the government, the next work is to subdivide the townships into sections of one square mile each, making 36 sections in each full township, and each full section containing 640 acres. The annexed diagram exhibits the 36 sections of a township:

The sections are numbered alternately west and east, beginning at the northeast corner of the township, as shown by the diagram.

The lands are sold or disposed of by the government, in tracts of 640 acres, 320 acres, 160 acres, 80 acres and 40 acres; or by the section, half section, quarter section, half quarter section and quarter of quarter section. The annexed diagram will present a section and its sub-divisions:

The corners of the section, and the corners at N., E., S. and W. have all been established and marked by the government surveyor in making his sub-division of the township, or in sectionizing, as it is termed. He does

not establish or mark any of the interior lines or corners. This work is left for the county surveyor or other competent person. Suppose the last diagram to represent section 25, in township 89, north of range 47 west, then the sub-divisions shown may be described as the northwest quarter of section 25; the southwest quarter of section 25; the southeast quarter of section 25, all in township 89 north of range 47 west of the 5th Principal Meridian. But these descriptions do not include any portion of the northeast quarter of the section. That we wish to describe in smaller sub-divisions. So we say, the east half of the northeast quarter of section 25; the northwest quarter of the northeast quarter of section 25, and the southwest quarter of the northeast quarter of section 25, all in township 89 north of range 47 west of the 5th Principal Meridian. The last three descriptions embrace all the northeast quarter of the section, but described in three distinct tracts, one containing 80 acres, and two containing 40 acres each. The Base Lines and Principal Meridians have been established by astronomical observations; but the lines of sub-divisions are run with the compass. The line indicated by the magnetic needle, when allowed to move freely about the point of support, and settle to a state of rest, is called the magnetic variation. This, in general, is not the true meridian, or north and south line. The angle which the magnetic meridian makes with the true meridian, is called the variation of the needle at that place, and is east or west, according as the north end of the needle lies on the east or west side of the true meridian. The variation of the needle is different at different places, but in Iowa the magnetic needle points about 91 degrees east of the true meridian. The lines of the lands are made to conform as nearly as practicable to the true meridian, but owing to the imperfections of instruments, topographical inequalities in the surface of the ground, and various other causes, it is absolutely impossible in practice to arrive at perfection; or, in other words, to make the townships and their sectional sub-divisions exactly square and their lines exactly north and south and east and west. A detailed statement of the manner of sub-dividing a township into sections would be too lengthy for this article. Suffice it to say, that the fractional tracts are all thrown on the north and west sides of the townships. The last tiers, or rows, of quarter sections on the north and west sides of a township generally fall either below or in excess of even quarter sections. Where there is a large district of country of uniform level surface, the errors of measurement are not likely to be so great, and the fractions in that case may not vary much from even quarter sections.

Åll measurements are made in chains. A chain is a measure of four rods, each link being the hundredth part of a chain, and is so used in the field notes and calculations. For convenience in practice, however, the surveyor generaly uses a half chain, equal to two rods, or fifty links, but the surveyor's reckoning is kept, and all his calculations are made in full chains of four rods, and decimal parts thereof. In the measurement of lines, every five chains are called an "out," because at that distance, the last of the ten tally rods or pins, with which the forward chainınan set out, has been set to mark the measurement. The other chainman then comes forward, counts and delivers to him the ten tally rods which he has taken up in the last "out," the forward chainman likewise counting the pins as he receives them. At the end of every five chains, the forward chainman as he sets the tenth or last tally rod, calls, "out," which is repeated by the other chainman, and by the marker and surveyor, each of whom keeps a tally of the "outs,"

44

and marks the same as he calls them. Sixteen "outs," or eighty chains, make a mile.

The corners of townships, sections and quarter sections, are marked in the following manner:

On the exterior township lines, corner posts are set at the distance of every mile and half mile from the township corner. The mile posts are for the corners of sections, and the half-mile posts for the corners of quarter sections. They are required to be driven into the ground to the depth of from fifteen to twenty inches, and to be made of the most durable wood to be had. The sides of the posts are squared off at the top, and the angles of the square set to correspond with the cardinal points of the compass. All the mile posts on the township lines are marked with as many notches cut in one of the angles as they are miles distant from the township corner where the line commenced. But the township corner posts are notched with six notches on each of the four angles. The mile posts on the section lines are notched on the south and east angles of the square, respectively, with as many notches as they are miles distant from the south and east boundaries of the township. If it so happens that a tree is situated to supply the place of a corner post, it is "blazed" on four sides facing the sections to which it is the corner, and notched in the same manner that the corner posts At all corners in the timber, two or more bearing trees in opposite directions are required to be noted, and the course of each tree noted and recorded. The trees are "blazed" on the side facing the post, and the letters B. T. (Bearing Tree) cut in the wood below the blaze. At the quarter section corners, the post is flattened on opposite sides, and marked "," and the nearest suitable tree on each side of the section line is marked to show the township, range and section in which such tree is situated. More recent regulations require four witnesses, or bearing trees, at the township and section corners, and two at the quarter section corners, if within convenient distance.

are.

The

In the prairies, and other places where bearing trees could not be noted, quadrangular mounds of earth are raised around the posts, the angles of the mounds corresponding with the cardinal points of the compass. mounds are required to be two and a-half feet high and four feet square at the base. The earth to form the mound at the section corner is taken from one place to form the pit directly south of the mound; and at the quarter section corner it is taken directly east of the mound. The posts are squared and notched as heretofore described. More recent regulations require stones or charcoal to be buried in the mound.

In the timber the lines are marked in the following manner: All those trees which the line cuts have two notches on each side of the tree where the line cuts it. These are called "station trees," and sometimes "line trees," or "sight trees." All trees within ten or fifteen links on each side of the line are marked with two spots or "blazes," diagonally or quartering toward the line. The names and estimated diameters of all the "station trees," with their distances on the lines, are noted.

In the northwest part of Iowa, where the prairie so largely predominates, the landmarks, of course, are chiefly mounds and pits. The original stakes set by the surveyors have mostly been destroyed by the fires, but occasionally one may be found. Many of the mounds and pits have also been partially obliterated, but the experienced surveyor will generally identify them with very little trouble. A person in search of the landmarks on the prai

rie should provide himself with a compass with which to trace the lines. A small one will answer the purpose of ascertaining lines approximately, but for finding the sub-divisions accurately, a good compass or transit and chain are required.

The field notes of the original surveys furnish primarily the material from which the plats and calculations of the public lands are made, and the source from whence the description and evidence of the location and boundaries of those surveys are drawn and perpetuated. The surveyors of the public lands were, therefore, required to keep an accurate record of the topography of the country, with a description of everything which might afford useful information. The crossings of streams, lakes, ponds, sloughs, etc., with their location on the lines, were all required to be carefully noted.

EARLY SETTLEMENTS, AND TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION. Julien Dubuque-Spanish Lead Mines-Early Settlement at Dubuque-Settlement at Montrose se-Old Apple Trees-Fort Madison-Keokuk-First Settlement at Burlington-First Settlement in Scott County-Organization of Scott County-Murder of Col. DavenportBand of Outlaws broken up-Some First Things-Territorial Convention-Subject of Pre-emptions-Missouri Boundary-Question of Separate Territorial Organization-Memorials to Congress.

THE first white men who are known to have set their feet upon the soil of Iowa, were James Marquette and Louis Joliet, in 1673, as we have seen in a former part of this work. It was 115 years after the visit of these celebrated French voyageurs before any white man established a settlement, during which time several generations of the Indian tribes occupied the valleys of the beautiful rivers of Iowa, or roamed over her broad prairies. During all this time they doubtless kept alive among them the tradition of the strange Black-Robe Chief and his pale-faced companions who came in their canoes to see their fathers so many years before. It was likewise a Frenchman, Julien Dubuque, who had the honor of making the first permanent white settlement. In 1788, having obtained permission from the Indians, he crossed the Mississippi with a small party of miners for the purpose of working lead mines at the place where the city is now located which bears his name, the lead having been discovered a short time before by the wife Peosta, a Fox warrior. Dubuque was a native of France, but had emigrated to Canada and become an Indian trader. While engaged in that business he reached Prairie du Chien about the year 1785, and with two other Frenchmen, laid out a village which now constitutes the northern part of that city. As a trader he acquired great influence with the Sac and Fox Chiefs. Six years after he engaged in mining (1796), he wrote a very diplomatic petition to the Spanish Governor of Louisiana, Baron de Carondelet, to confirm the Indian grant. The governor referred the petition to a merchant and trader named Andrew Todd, who recommended that the grant be confirmed, with a restriction prohibiting Dubuque from trading with the Indians, without first obtaining Todd's consent in writing. With this restriction the petition was granted. Dubuque, as was a common custom among the French traders, had married an Indian woman. He gave to the district embraced in his grant the name of the Mines of Spain, in 1796, in compliment to the Spanish governor. He remained engaged in mining, until his death, which occurred March 24, 1810. He was buried on a bluff near the present city, and at his grave was placed a cedar cross, hewn square,