against France, which was joined by the emperor Francis, the king of England, Alexander, emperor of Russia, and Gustavus, king of Sweden. Prussia remained neutral. The electors of Bavaria, Würtemberg, and Baden took part with France against the empire. Napoleon, with an immense force, called the Grand Army, marched to the rescue of Bavaria, while Massena was sent against the Austrian dominions in Italy. Massena was defeated by the archduke Charles. But in Germany the Austrian general Mack being too dull and inert either to fight or to fly, the French took 20,000 prisoners, and entered the city of Ulm. Vienna had been left undefended while Francis was gone to join Alexander, who had just brought his army from Russia. The French entered Vienna on the 13th of November, 1805. The three emperors fought at Austerlitz on the 2d of December, when the soldiers promised that, if Napoleon would not run into danger, they would bring him the whole of the Russian standards and artillery as a bouquet. They redeemed the promise, gaining the most splendid of all their victories. It obliged Alexander to retreat, and forced Francis to accept the Treaty of Presburg, which fell more hardly on him than either of the former ones, since he had to give up Venetia and Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, to acknowledge his refractory feudatories of Bavaria and Würtemberg as kings, and to cede parts of his hereditary dominions to them and to the elector of Baden, among which changes the county of Tyrol was added to the kingdom of Bavaria. Bonaparte also suppressed the ancient republic of Ragusa, which had given no offence at all. But he could not get all Dalmatia, for the Russians held Cattaro. the same time he made his brother Louis king of Holland, and his brother-in-law Murat grand-duke of Berg.

The new kings of Bavaria and Würtemberg and some other of the German princes formed in July, 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine, under the protection of France, which was afterwards joined by others of the German states. These princes threw off their allegiance to the empire, and in August the emperor Francis abdicated, and the Roman empire and the kingdom of Germany came to an end. Its position, and much more than its power, had now been transferred to the new ruler of France. The ex-emperor Francis, king of Hun

gary and archduke of Austria, went on reigning by the title of Emperor of Austria, which he had taken

in 1804.

Prussia had stood aloof from the war in 1805, but its king, Frederick William, now allied himself with Russia and declared war on France. Saxony joined, and the army of 150,000 men was commanded by the Duke of Brunswick. Without waiting for the Russians, he advanced into Saxony, and there was met by Napoleon himself, at the head of the forces of France and of the Confederation of the Rhine, at Jena, on Oct. 4, 1806, and entirely crushed, with the loss of 20,000 men; the Duke of Brunswick was mortally wounded. The French now entered Berlin, and there Napoleon put out the famous Berlin Decrees, which declared the British Islands in a state of blockade and forbade all correspondence and trade with England. All northern Germany was now at Napoleon's mercy; the king and queen of Prussia fled to Königsberg, and their whole country was trodden down with a ruthless severity that has never been forgotten. The elector of Saxony now made a separate peace and joined the Rhenish Confederation with the title of King. Alexander of Russia sent his forces, and Lannes was defeated by them at Pultusk; but at Preuss Eylau, on Feb. 8, 1807, was fought a most tremendous battle, and in June another at Friedland, where the Russians, after fearful losses, had to retreat. By the Peace of Tilsit, in June, 1807, the king of Prussia gave up all his dominions west of the Elbe, which, with some other German territory, was made into the kingdom of Westphalia, for Napoleon's brother, Jerome. The other German dominions of Prussia were left to their own king, Danzig being made a republic. Alexander and Bonaparte might seem at this period to have divided Europe between them.

We now come to the overthrow of France's naval power. In 1805, Charles IV. of Spain entered into an alliance with France, and the Spanish fleet, consisting of the most splendid ships in Europe, was joined with those which Bonaparte had built since the battle of the Nile. He was more than ever bent on invading England; he had his forces ready at Boulogne, and flat-bottomed boats with which they were to cross. French ships were sent to threaten the West India Isles, in hopes that enough English ships would follow them to give the French

But the

a few days superiority before Boulogne. French and Spanish fleets were driven by stress of weather to put into Cadiz Bay, and Nelson, with the Mediterranean fleet, lay in wait for them outside Cape Trafalgar, where he won the greatest of all his victories on Oct. 21, 1805, but was himself killed by a shot from a sailor on a French mast-head. The French navy was ruined, and all thoughts of attacking the coast of England had to be laid aside. Indeed, from this time, while Bonaparte had his own. way by land, he could do nothing by sea. The English fleet kept Malta, and defended Sicily and Sardinia. The only insular possession which the French could keep in Europe was Corfu. In 1799, the Ionian Islands, which had been taken by France in 1797, were won by the Russians and Turks together, and were made into a republic under the protection of the czar and the sultan. By the Peace of Tilsit they were given back to France along with Cattaro; but the English won all the islands except Corfu.

The famous Peninsular War began in 1807. While Spain was thus an ally of France, Portugal was, as it had always been, an ally of England. At this time it had an insane queen, Maria I., and was governed by her son John. Portugal refused to carry out the Berlin decrees against her English ally; so Bonaparte proposed to Godoy, the minister. of Charles of Spain, a scheme for the partition of Portugal. For this end he was allowed to send his troops through Spain. At the approach of the French Marshal Junot, the Portuguese royal family took ship for Brazil, the great colony of Portugal, leaving their European kingdom to its fate. Bonaparte meanwhile, instead of partitioning Portugal, seized one Spanish fortress after the other, till the people of Madrid took alarm, rose against his dupe Godoy, and caused the king to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. But as Murat marched into the city, and would not acknowledge the new king or the old, both were induced to come to Bayonne to meet Bonaparte and plead their cause. There, being both in one net, the father and son were each induced to resign the crown. Napoleon kept them both as prisoners, filled Spain with his troops, and when his brother Lucien indignantly refused a crown so gained, he transferred Joseph to Spain, making Murat king of Naples. But the Spaniards had no notion of being thus treated; the

whole kingdom, together with Portugal, armed; the hills and roads swarmed with guerillas, the towns shut their gates, the nobles raised troops and formed a junta, or provisional council, at Seville, and both countries called for help from England, the only power still at war with France.

Troops were sent to Lisbon under Sir Arthur Wellesley, in August, 1808, and totally defeated Junot at Vimiera; but the senior officers who superseded him did not follow up the victory, and by the Convention of Cintra allowed Junot to leave Portugal with the honors of war and all his plunder. Sir John Moore also landed at Corunna, intending to relieve Madrid and join the Spanish troops, but Napoleon had in the meantime arrived and routed the Spaniards. Moore was therefore forced to retreat along the mountain roads before Soult, and finally was killed in the battle fought on the 16th July, 1809, to protect the embarkation of his troops at Corunna. Soult was defeated by Wellesley at Talavera, July 28, 1809.

A meeting between Bonaparte and Alexander of Russia to partition Europe offended Austria and the battle of Wagram was the outcome, July 8, 1809, which proved one of Napoleon's greatest victories. He now imposed on Francis whatever conditions he chose. Those parts of the Austrian dominions which bordered on Italy and Dalmatia were now incorporated with France by the name of the Illyrian provinces. Bonaparte also demanded the hand of the archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor Francis, and great niece of Marie Antoinette. He had made up his mind to divorce Josephine and marry a princess who might bring him heirs. To this sacrifice Francis consented, and gave his daughter to this soldier of fortune. bore him a son in 1811, who was called King of Rome.

She

There was no war on Napoleon's hands after the battle of Wagram, except what he called the Spanish ulcer. Wellington was still in Spain with his 20,000 English, aided by 30,000 Portuguese. He sent Massena, whom he termed the spoiled child of victory, with 80,000 men, to drive the hideous leopards into the sea, meaning the lions or leopards in the English arms. But Massena was forsaken by victory at Busaco, he could not break the entrenchments at Torres Vedras, he was starved out of Portugal, and routed again at Fuentes d'Onoro

on his retreat. The French and Spaniards hated each other bitterly, and both were guilty of such horrors that Joseph, a weak, kindly man, entreated his brother to let him resign, but in vain. At the same time Louis, whose Dutch subjects would not endure the loss of trade with England, could not bear to carry out his brother's savage modes of enforcing obedience, and actually fled from Holland, which was united to the French empire. At the same time Bonaparte annexed to France all the ocean coast of Germany, taking in the three free cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck. France now touched the Baltic. He also annexed the land of Wallis or Valais, which had been first an ally and then a canton of Switzerland. The French dominion was now at its greatest extent. By this time the friendship between Bonaparte and Alexander of Russia was beginning to give way. Bonaparte seems really to have planned the conquest of all Europe, and he specially offended the Russian emperor by half promises made to the Poles of a fuller restoration of their country than he had made by creating the duchy of Warsaw. Sweden now formed an alliance with Russia. Bonaparte marched out of France with what he called the Grand Army. All of his marshals, except Soult and Marmont, were with the army, and he was in command. They marched in full security of conquest upon Moscow. On Sept. 5, 1812, was fought the first considerable battle of Borodino. The battle, though hotly contested by the Russian general, Barclay de Tolly, ended in the French keeping possession of the ground and marching into Moscow. They found the city deserted by the whole of the inhabitants, and they had scarcely taken up their quarters before flames broke out everywhere. The French charge the fire on the Russians, the Russians on the French. This fire destroyed the winter shelter of the latter and deprived them of provisions. Jaded and worn out as they were, there was now no choice save retreat, and that in the midst of a Russian winter of unusual severity. The Cossacks hung upon their rear, cutting off and capturing those who fell behind, and at the bridge over the river Beresina there was a deadly scene of slaughter. Frost, cold, and hunger were their worst foes. They lived chiefly on horse-flesh, and had to plod through deep snows, and spend night after night in the open air. Every night found the watch-fires surrounded with circles

of dead. Marshal Ney and Eugene Beauharnais showed great courage and firmness, but Napoleon, as soon as he saw that nothing but misery was left for his army, abandoned it to its fate, and hurried on with his guard of honor, under the excuse that his presence was needed at Paris. Ney, who was already called the Bravest of the Brave, earned the further title of the Rear-Guard of the Grand Army, for he fought to the very last to protect the broken remnant. When they made their way to the Niemen, the river which divided Russia from the duchy of Warsaw, he was said to be the last Frenchman, not being a prisoner, who quitted Russian ground.

Rus

Prussia and all Germany were now ready to throw off the French yoke. All Prussia had been in training for arms ever since their overthrow at Jena. The king went to meet the emperor Alexander at Breslau, and concluded an alliance with him. sia, Prussia, and Sweden, were thus joined against France. France had been almost drained of men, and Napoleon's fresh conscription stripped both France and Italy of every youth above sixteen who could carry a musket, leaving the labors of husbandry to the women and the German prisoners. On the old battle-field of Lützen, where Gustavus Adolphus had been slain, there was a terrible battle, in which the Russians had indeed to retreat, but without leaving one color or one cannon in the hands of the French. Bautzen was such another dearly-bought victory, obliging the Allies to fall back. Saxony was on the French side, and Bonaparte had his head-quarters at Dresden. There Austria offered terms of mediation, proposing that France should keep the frontier of the Rhine as in 1801, and leave the rest of Germany independent. This Bonaparte refused. On this Francis of Austria joined the Allies against his son-in-law, who declared he had found the marriage with Maria Louisa a precipice crowned with flowers, since it made him trust overmuch to the support of Austria. A series of battles were fought in August in the neighborhood of Dresden, in which Bonaparte had the advantage. At last at Leipsic, on the 16th and 18th of October, 1813, was fought one of the longest and deadliest of battles on record. Russians, Prussians, Austrians, and Swedes, were arrayed against the common enemy, and the Saxons forsook Bonaparte in the battle. Yet the fight was desperately contested by the French till they were

entirely worn out, and had spent every round of ammunition. They were forced to retreat, with the more terrible loss from the only stone bridge on the river Elster having been blown up. Fifteen thousand men were thus cut off. The French were attacked beyond the Rhine; but when Austria again offered peace on the condition of France taking the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees, as its boundaries, Bonaparte again refused.

The Allies again offered peace on condition of France being cut short within its own boundaries as they stood before 1792; but Bonaparte again refused. On the 1st of January, 1814, the Prussians crossed the Rhine, the Austrians advanced on the Swiss border, the Russians through Lorraine, the Swedes were in Flanders, and the English had passed the Pyrenees. Yet Napoleon had not lost hope, and the last campaign against the Allies was as brilliant as any of his former ones. He surprised the Prussians at Brienne, the Russians at Champ Aubert, the Prussians again at Montmirail, and the Austrians at Montereau. In one fortnight of February he had beaten two great armies, and taken an immense number of colors and artillery; but in the mean time Wellington had routed Soult at Orthez, and at Bordeaux the Duke of Angoulême was welcomed with eager enthusiasm. France was exhausted, and all Europe, eager to revenge the wrongs she had inflicted, was pouring in multitudes upon her. Two more dreadful battles, at Laon and Craonne, drove the Prussians back for a short time; but while Napoleon was making head against the Austrians at Rheims, the Russians were pushing forwards, and defeated Marmont at Vitry. The cannon were heard at Paris, and Maria Louisa and her child were sent for safety to Blois. Marmont made a last stand on the heights at Montmartre, with the boys of the military college to serve the guns. All was in vain; he had to withdraw into Paris, and there made terms with the Allies. poleon, arriving from Rheims, found there was no hope for his capital and went to Fontainebleau.

Na

On the 31st of March, 1814, the Allies entered Paris, and encamped in its parks and gardens, amid strange apathy on the part of the inhabitants. They seemed more amused at the spectacle than concerned for their own future, applauding every man of mark who was seen in their streets, and overthrowing the statues and eagles of Napoleon. The Allies were will

ing to let France have any government it chose, provided it were not that of Napoleon, the disturber of the peace of Europe; with him they declared they would not treat. The Senate declared him deposed, and he himself offered to abdicate in favor of his son. This was not accepted, and Marmont, with the remnant of the army, submitted to the Allies. Bonaparte then signed an act of abdication for himself and his heirs on the 5th of April, 1814. On the 11th the treaty was signed by which he was to keep the sovereignty of the little island of Elba in the Mediterranean, with the title of emperor. His wife Maria Louisa received the duchies of Parma and Piacenza for herself and her son.

There was now a provisional government, at the head of which was Prince Talleyrand. This man, eldest son of the noble family of Talleyrand-Perigord, had been forced into the priesthood in his youth, and had become Bishop of Autun. He had freed himself from all restraints of his order during the revolution, and had become one of Napoleon's most useful ministers. He now took the direction of affairs in France, and induced the Senate to recall the old royal family. On May 3, 1814, Louis XVIII. entered Paris with all his family. Louis called himself king of France and Navarre, but he never was crowned. He began his reign with Talleyrand for his adviser. He was an elderly man, large, inert, and gouty, shrewd and clever, and such an epicure that a pun turned Louis Dixhuit (XVIII.) into Louis des hiutres (or of the oysters). A constitution had been drawn up by the Senate, but he rejected it, and gave them one of his own called the "Charter." It was really the more liberal of the two, but they were affronted that it was called his grant, and was not to spring from themselves. The disbanded soldiers were discontented, and did nothing but bemoan their past glories, and violets were handed around with the whisper, "He will return in spring."

Now comes the celebrated "Hundred Days." Napoleon was encouraged to escape from Elba and make one last attempt. He landed near Antibes on the 1st of March, 1815, and was hailed with rapture by his old soldiers. Ney, after strong promises of fidelity to Louis XVIII., went over to him, and every regiment sent to meet him threw down its arms, and greeted him as a father. Louis XVIII. fled to Ghent, and Bonaparte was received at Paris

with transports of joy on the part of the soldiers and the mob. He found, however, that he could not re-establish his old despotism, and he proclaimed a constitution called the Additional Act, which established a legislative assembly of two chambers. On the 1st of June he held a gathering of deputies from all parts of France, which he called a Champ de Mai, in imitation of the old Frankish kings. Talleyrand, however, saw so plainly that his cause was desperate that he followed the king in his flight, and every prince in Europe was resolved that the foe of all should not again establish himself. Every state raised its army once more, and Napoleon, swift as ever, and hoping to defeat them one by one before they could coalesce, hurried to the Netherlands when as yet only the English and Prussians had had time to arrive to protect Brussels. There, on the 16th of June, 1815, he attacked the Prussians at Ligny, and drove them back to Wavre; but Ney was less successful at Quatre Bras against a division of the English under the Prince of Orange. On the 18th, when Napoleon for the first time found himself personally opposed to the English under Wellington at Waterloo, he found it impossible to break their squares of infantry, and after a long day's fighting, his last reserve, the Imperial Guard, was completely broken on the heights of St. Jean. The Prussians coming up made the rout of the French so complete that all that was left for Napoleon was flight to Paris at the utmost speed. His brother Lucien, coming to his aid in adversity, tried to rouse him to decided measures, but he was stunned and crushed, and as the enemy marched on Paris, he left with his brother another abdication in favor of his son. For the detailed account of the battle of Waterloo, see England, pp. 538-554.

A provisional government was formed which required him to leave France and go to America, and on the 7th of July the Allies again entered Paris and restored Louis XVIII. Bonaparte found it impossible to sail for America, as the port was guarded by British ships, and he was forced to surrender to Captain Maitland of the Bellerophon, exactly one hundred days since his landing. While he was taken to Plymouth harbor, the Allies at Paris resolved to send him to the lonely rock of St. Helena, under the care of Sir Hudson Lowe, an English officer, who was to watch him too closely for a fresh attempt at escape. There he spent six

years of repining and petty strife with his keepers, dictating at times very striking recollections, half true, half false, but his strength was breaking down under the hereditary malady of an internal cancer, and he died on the 5th of May, 1821.

Murat, who

Louis XVIII. now reigned again. had tried to join Napoleon, was seized by the Austrians and shot. Ney, whose promises to Louis XVIII. had made his desertion inexcusable, was also shot, his death causing great pity and indignation. The second occupation of Paris by the Allies pressed more heavily than the first; the Prussians were allowed to avenge their past sufferings. Louis XVIII. restored the treasures of art which had been stolen to adorn the Louvre, and every attempt was made to impress on the French the difference between lawful war and mere aggression. To secure peace an allied army was quartered on them for three years. The country was greatly exhausted, and the strength and stature of her people is said. never to have recovered the effects of the losses between 1789 and 1815.

Germany was indignant that Austria had signed the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1808, in the name of the empire. The German states in alliance with France, which country had now entered into a close compact with Russia, obtained the lion's share of the spoils. The dominions of Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemberg were greatly augmented at the expense of their neighbors. But Prussia above all now reaped the fruits of her adherence to France and of her desertion of the German cause. Her share of the plunder made up altogether about four times as much as she had lost on the banks of the Rhine.

The peace which had been concluded between England and France at Amiens, March 27, 1802, lasted but little more than a year; and the recommencement of hostilities between those countries was signalized by a fresh insult to the German empire on the part of France in the seizure and occupation of the electorate of Hanover. After that event some thousands of Hanoverians passed over into England, where they were formed into a brigade called "The King's German Legion," and served with distinction in Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy. Another subject of complaint was the violation of the German territory by the seizure of the Duc d'Enghien at Ettenheim, and his subsequent execution. But a still greater humiliation