was extreme, the bill was abandoned. But the queen's name remained excluded from the liturgy, and she was repulsed from the door of Westminster Abbey at the coronation, July 19, 1821. She died, broken down by her troubles, on August 7, 1821, at the age of fifty-two. Her remains were conveyed to Brunswick for interment, by way of Harwich; and the passage of the funeral cortège through London was attended with serious riots. The trial of Queen Caroline was the death-blow to George IV.'s popularity in England; but Ireland and Scotland were rejoiced at receiving visits from the only king whom they had seen since the Revolution. Meanwhile the Tory government were alarmed by the radical agitation, and by the Cato Street Conspiracy to assassinate the ministers and change the form of government.

In 1822 Lord Sidmouth was succeeded as home secretary by Mr. Peel, and the suicide of Lord Londonderry (Lord Castlereagh) called Canning to the post of foreign secretary. He devoted all his energy to resisting the "Holy Alliance," which had been formed, after the Peace of Paris, between France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, for the maintenance of despotism on the Continent. At the Congress of Verona they resolved on an armed intervention against the constitutional party in Spain, which was executed under the Duc d'Angoulême in the following year, 1823. Unable to resist this movement, Canning formed treaties of commerce with the American colonies which had revolted from Spain, and boasted that he "had called the New World to redress the balance of the Old," 1824. In the House of Commons, the splendid eloquence of Canning and Henry Brougham was called forth by these foreign questions, and by debates on Parliamentary reform and Catholic emancipation. In 1825 occurred a terrible commercial crisis; and the failure of many banks led to new laws to regulate the paper currency. The systematic adoption of emigration as a remedy for distress gave a new impulse to the colonies of Canada and Australia.

Great changes occurred on the thrones of Europe. In France and Russia, Louis XVIII. and Alexander I. were succeeded by their brothers Charles X., 1824, and Nicholas I., 1825. In 1825, John VI. of Portugal erected Brazil into an independent empire under his eldest son Dom Pedro, who on John's death, March, 1826, renounced the throne of Portu

gal in favor of his daughter, Donna Maria, at the same time giving the people a constitution. The usurpation of the throne by Dom Pedro's brother, Dom Miguel, a ferocious tyrant, 1827, led to a civil war, which lasted till May, 1834. England declared in favor of Donna Maria, who was ultimately established on the throne. In the east of Europe Russia pursued a course of aggrandizement at the expense of Turkey, and the Greeks took up arms for their independence. independence. The combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet at Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. This blow decided the war, and Greece was erected into a kingdom, the crown of which was ultimately accepted by Prince Otho of Bavaria.

Meanwhile the Catholic question had become pressing. In 1824 Daniel O'Connell, a barrister of great eloquence, organized the "Catholic Association." In 1825 a relief bill was brought in, passed the commons, but was lost in the lords, where the Duke of York uttered a solemn oath that, if he came to the throne, he would never consent to the repeal of the Catholic disabilities. The duke, however, died on January 5, 1827. A Tory government removed the disabilities both of the Protestant Dissenters, and of the Roman Catholics. Lord John Russell, the younger son of the Duke of Bedford, moved the Repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts passed under Charles II. Mr. Peel was left in a minority, and withdrew his opposition. In the lords the measure was supported by Lord Holland, the nephew of Charles James Fox, and the Duke of Sussex, the sixth son of George III., to whom his consistent support of civil and religious liberty had been most distasteful, as it now was to George IV. The passing of this act gave a new stimulus to the agitation for Catholic relief. The crisis was brought on by the election of O'Connell for the county of Clare. The Duke of Wellington was convinced that his choice lay between concession and a civil war, the horrors of which he deprecated with deep feeling; and his ministry announced a measure for the relief of the Catholics in the king's speech, 1829. Mr. Peel, who had always opposed the Catholic claims, was rejected by his constituents of the University of Oxford, in favor of Sir Robert Harry Inglis, a kind-hearted simple-minded Tory, who always held that "wherever the king carried his flag, there he should carry his church."

Peel came back to the house as member for Westbury, and introduced the bill, which passed the lords on April 10, after earnest opposition. Lord Eldon was moved to tears, and Lord Winchelsea came forward as the champion of religion in a duel with the Duke of Wellington. The act opened Parliament and offices of state to the Catholics on their taking a new oath in place of the oath of supremacy; but they were excluded from the offices of regent, viceroy of Ireland, and lord chancellor both in England and Ireland. The exclusion from the crown, and its forfeiture by marriage with a Catholic, remained in force. The words of the new oath, "on the true faith of a Christian," had the effect of excluding the Jews from Parliament till 1858, when they were admitted. The separate form of oath for Catholics was done away with in 1866.

The king gave his assent to the bill, but showed a resentment against the ministry, which was shared by the Tory party. Meanwhile the king was living in peevish seclusion at Windsor, where he died on June 26, 1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and the eleventh of his reign, and was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William Henry, duke of Clarence.

William IV., 1830-1837, the third son of George III., was within two months of his sixty-fifth year when he came to the throne. He was married to the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, July 11, 1818, by whom he had two daughters, who died in infancy. He had entered the navy at an early age, and as he never affected statesmanship, gained popularity by his sailor-like frankness and simplicity of

manner.

He ascended the throne at a great crisis in Europe as well as England. The Continental princes had cast to the winds the liberal professions which had raised the hopes of their people during the last conflict with Napoleon, and relied on their vast armies and the support of Russia. In France, the Charter had been tolerably observed by Louis XVIII., but Charles X. followed a reactionary policy, which became more decided under the ministry of Polignac, 1829. The ordinances against the freedom of the press caused a revolt in Paris, which

lasted three days, and ended in the Revolution of 1830.

Charles X. fled to England, and the Duke of Orleans, son of Philippe-Egalite, was made "king of the French" by the title of Louis-Philippe I. An equally sudden revolution separated Belgium from the kingdom of Holland, to which it had been united by the Congress of Vienna. Ultimately, Prince Leopold became king of the Belgians.

These events had a marked effect on the English elections, which were unfavorable to ministers. The tone of the king's speech, and the declaration of the Duke of Wellington against any change in the representation, produced the greatest ferment. There were rumors of vast bodies of reformers marching up to London from the north, and the king's visit to the city on Nov. 9 was put off. A bill for Parliamentary reform was brought in by Lord John Russell. A dissolution produced a Parliament pledged to "the Bill, the whole Bill, and nothing but the Bill." It was carried by large majorities in the commons, after tremendous struggles, but rejected in the lords by a majority of 41, Oct. 8. Formidable riots ensued. Nottingham Castle, the residence of the Duke of Newcastle, was burnt; and Bristol was in the hands of the mob for several days, and a large part of the city was burnt down. Amidst these commotions, England was visited in the autumn by that new plague, the Cholera, which had gradually advanced from India. across Asia and Europe. A second great outbreak of it occurred in 1849.

The Reform Bill was brought in again on the meeting of Parliament in December, and passed the commons in March, 1832. It received the royal assent on June 7, 1832, fifty years and a month after Pitt's first motion. The first reformed Parliament met on Feb. 5, 1833. The Tory party seemed almost destroyed, but the tactics of Sir Robert Peel organized a steady though small opposition, who assumed the name of Conservatives. The king died June 20, 1837, in the seventy-second year of his age. He was succeeded by his niece, the Princess Victoria of Kent, and in Hanover by his brother Ernest, Duke of Cumberland.

LAVERHOUSE, Viscount Dundee, was in treaty with the exiled James, and at the battle of Killiecrankie, July 27, 1689, having worsted the English, fell on the field. The clans gathered together again under an officer named Buchan, who came from James with a commission to act as his commander-in-chief in Scotland. They were surprised and beaten at the Strath of the Spey, and this action ended the Civil War in Scotland. The castle on the Bass, a rock in the Firth of Forth, was the last place which held out for James, but the garrison were at last obliged to give in, from want of food. Still the chiefs did not take the oaths to William, and were clearly only waiting for the appearance of a new leader to break out again. To win them over to the government a large sum of money was put into the hands of John Campbell, earl of Breadalbane. He was accused of cheating both the clans and the king by keeping a part of this sum himself, and he never gave any clear account of what he had done with it. At the same time a proclamation was put forth which offered pardon to all the rebels who should take the oaths to William and Mary before or on December 31, 1691. All who did not take advantage of this offer were after that day to be dealt with as enemies and traitors, and warlike preparations were made for carrying out the threat.

THE MASSACRE OF GLENCOE.

By the day named the clans had all come in, except MacIan, chief of a tribe of MacDonalds, who lived in Glencoe, a wild mountain valley in the north

western corner of Argyleshire. On the last day, December 31, MacIan and his principal clansmen went to Fort William to take the oaths, but found that there was no one there who had authority to administer them. There was no magistrate nearer than Inverary, and, as the ground was deeply covered with snow, it was some days before MacIan got there. But the sheriff, in consideration of his goodwill and of the delay that he had met with, administered the oaths, Jan. 6, and sent an account of the whole affair to the Privy Council at Edinburgh. Unfortunately for Glencoe, Breadalbane was his bitter personal enemy, and along with Sir John Dalrymple, the Master of Stair, he determined on his destruction. An order for the extirpation of the whole tribe was drawn up and presented to William, who signed it, and it was carried out with cold-blooded treachery. A party of soldiers, under the command of Campbell of Glenlyon, appeared in the glen. They gave out that they came as friends, and as such they were kindly welcomed, and shared the hospitality of the MacDonalds for a fortnight. Without any warning they turned on their hosts, and before dawn of a winter's morning slew nearly all the dwellers in the valley, old and young together, Feb. 13, 1691. They then burnt the houses, and drove off the cattle, so that nothing was left for the few wretched beings who had escaped death but to perish miserably of cold and hunger. Whether William knew the whole state of the case or not when he signed the warrant is not certain, but he did not punish those who had dared to commit this wholesale murder in his name. And though four years after, when a stir was made about it, he did grant a commission to the Privy

Council to inquire into the matter, he did not bring to judgment the Master of Stair, who was very clearly pointed out as the guilty person.

Just at this time the public attention was taken up with a scheme for founding a new colony on the Isthmus of Darien, and people's minds were so full of it that nothing else was thought of. It was got up by William Paterson, who is to be remembered as the originator of the Bank of England. He fancied that he had found, what Columbus and the other navigators of his day had sought in vain, a short cut to the Indies. His plan was to plant a colony on the isthmus which unites North and South America, and to make it the route by which the merchandise of the East should be brought to Europe, thereby shortening the long sea-voyage. He drew glowing pictures of the untold wealth that would thus fall to the lot of those who were clearsighted enough to join in the venture. A charter was granted to the new company, and half the capital of Scotland was invested in the scheme. The whole affair ended in fiasco, after 1,200 emigrants had settled New Caledonia on the Gulf of Darien.

Just as the project of an Union was about to be considered in the English Parliament, William died, March 8, 1702. Both crowns now passed to Anne, the younger daughter of James VII. It was in this reign that the system of National education, which has made the Scotch, as a people, so intelligent and well-informed, was recast. James VII. had died in France a few months before his nephew, and his son had been proclaimed there as James VIII. This made the Whigs anxious to have an act passed in Scotland similar to the English Act of Settlement. By this act the Parliament had settled that, if Anne died without heirs, the crown should pass to the nearest Protestant heir, Sophia, electress of Hanover, granddaughter of James VI., or to her descendants. But the Estates still felt injured and angry about the late differences with England, and passed an Act of Security, which made express conditions that the same person should not succeed to the throne of both kingdoms, unless, during Queen Anne's reign, measures had been taken for securing the honor and independence of the Scottish nation against English influence. The right of declaring war against England at any time was to remain with the Scottish Parlia

ment.

THE UNION.

It was clear that, if the two kingdoms were to go on together in peace, it could only be by joining their Parliaments and their commercial interests into one. Commissioners from both sides were appointed to consider the best way of effecting this union. Godolphin, the treasurer of England, and the Duke of Queensberry, the royal commissioner in Scotland, were its chief promoters. The Commissioners drew up a Treaty of Union, which was approved by the Parliaments of both countries. By the Articles of Union the succession to both crowns was settled in the Protestant heirs of Sophia; and each country was secured in the possession of her national church as then established. Scotland was to send sixteen representative peers,. elected from the whole body of peers, and forty-five members from the commons, to the Parliament at Westminster, henceforth to be called the Parliament of Great Britain. It was further settled that one seal, with the arms of both kingdoms quartered upon it, should serve for both countries, that both should be subject to the same excise duties and customs, and should have the same privileges of trade. same coins, weights, and measures were to be used throughout the island. The law-courts of Scotland, the Court of Justiciary and the Court of Session, were to remain unchanged, only there was now a right of appeal from the Court of Session, which had hitherto been supreme in all civil cases, to the House of Lords. In addition to the twenty-five Articles of Union, a special Act was passed for securing the liberty of the Church of Scotland as it then stood in all time coming, and declaring that the Presbyterian should be the only church government in Scotland. The first Parliament of Great

Britain met October 23, 1707.

THE RESULTS OF THE UNION.

The

Twice before this time the Legislature of the two kingdoms had been thus joined together into one, under Edward I. and under Cromwell. But these two unions, each the result of conquest, had lasted but a little while. This Union was destined to be more enduring, and to lead to increased prosperity in both kingdoms. For Scotland it was the beginning of quite a new state of things. Hitherto, the struggle for national life had left her no leisure