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ruled over it, and the greater part was freed by an insurrection led by General Paoli in 1755. During the life of the emperor Francis I., the grand duchy of Tuscany was almost a province of Austria; but on his death, in 1765, it again became an independent state under his third son, Peter Leopold. Although this sovereign reigned as a despot, yet he did much to forward the welfare of his subjects. One noble monument of his reign is the improved state of the Val di Chiana. This valley is a tract of land lying between two mountain ranges, and bounded by the Arno and the Paglia. Leopold changed the whole flow of the water, he drained it into the Arno, and made the valley wondrously rich and fruitful. He also began to drain the Maremma. In 1790 Leopold succeeded to the empire, and appointed his second son, Ferdinand, to succeed him in Tuscany. After the Peace of Aixla-Chapelle, Charles Emmanuel engaged in no more wars. Like the rest of the rulers of Italy he was a despot.

After the death of Charles Emmanuel, his son, Victor Amadeus III., allied himself to the French Bourbons. Towards the end of this reign Alfieri began to write; Alessandro Volta, a native of Como, discovered the theory of galvanism by contact, and in 1800 invented the voltaic pile. From the time of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle the popes were in constant disputes with the courts of France, Spain, and Naples, about the powers of the church. In 1773 Clement XIV. issued a "Brief" abolishing the society of Jesuits.

At the end of the eighteenth century, it seemed as though the despotism which was crushing Italy in the, Sardinian kingdom and in the dominions of the Bourbon families was about to come to an end. In 1792 the French abolished their monarchy, and formed a republic. They immediately began to try to make other nations accept the same form of government, and invaded Savoy and Nizza, and made them parts of their own republic. The troubles of France prevented her army from crossing the Alps for nearly four years, and during this time she was opposed by an alliance of all the powers of Western Europe. In 1795 a new government was formed in France, and peace was made with all the foreign states except England, Austria, and Sardinia. The next year the French army crossed the Alps under Napoleon Bonaparte. This famous general was of

Italian blood and name, and was a native of Corsica. King Victor Amadeus III. was forced to give up his claim to Savoy and Nizza, for which he had been fighting for four years, and on the Italian side of the Alps to give up Alessandria and Tortona. Bonaparte next met the Austrians. In May he en tered Milan and Bologna, and from the latter place dictated terms to Pope Pius VI. and Ferdinand of Tuscany.

arms.

The victories of Arcola and Rivoli made him master of Lombardy. He next invaded the States of the Church. He made the pope give up part of his territory, and pay tribute; and then plundered the Vatican, and sent part of its treasures to Paris. The French, as they advanced, brought with them the doctrines of their own revolution. The Italians rose against their rulers, overset their governments, and banished the priests and monks. The Italians were heavily taxed for the glories of the French The Austrian emperor was forced to make peace, and Bonaparte advanced to Venice. The French were hailed with delight by the mob. The Bucentaur, or galley, from which the Doge yearly wedded the Adriatic by dropping a ring into the water, was broken up. The Golden Book, which contained the names of the nobles who ruled the city, was burned. Many splendid works of art were carried off to Paris, and amongst them the bronze horses of St. Mark's, which Enrico Dandolo had brought from Constantinople, and which Luciano Doria had sworn to bridle.

The same year, 1797, the Treaty of Campo Formio was made between France and Austria. Lombardy, Parma, and Modena, the Papal States of Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna, and the Venetian territory as far as the Adige, were declared independent under the name of the Cisalpine Republic. To make up for these and other losses, the French gave Venice and her dependencies in the Adriatic to the Austrians, who took possession of the city at the beginning of the next year. Besides the Cisalpine Republic, the French general set up the Ligurian, Cispadane, and Tiberine republics, with Genoa, Bologna, and Rome, as their capitals. At the close of 1798 Naples surrendered, and was made the seat of the Parthenopean Republic. same year Charles Emmanuel IV. was forced to give up his throne, and the French took possession of Piedmont.

The

Pope Pius VI. fled from Rome, and died in France in 1799. The victories of France were now checked for a time. Austria, Russia, and England formed an alliance against her. Italy became the scene of the war on the continent of Europe. The French were everywhere defeated. A new 'pope,

who took the title of Pius VII., was chosen at Venice, and some of the old governments were for the moment restored. But all this soon ended. Bonaparte came back from the war in Egypt, and was made First Consul, and, after the decisive battle of Marengo, regained all that had been lost. He restored the Catholic faith as the religion of the state, and allowed the new pope to remain at Rome, and King Ferdinand at Naples.

In 1804 Bonaparte chose to call himself Emperor ∙of the French, and sent for the pope to anoint him. The next year this successful Corsican changed the Cisalpine Republic into a monarchy, and was crowned King of Italy in the church of St. Ambrose. He joined the Ligurian Republic to the new kingdom; and made his stepson, Eugene Beauharnais, grandson of a West Indian planter, the Viceroy of Italy. At the close of the year the defeat of the Austrians at Austerlitz forced them to give up the whole of the Venetian territory to Bonaparte, who joined it on to his Italian kingdom. Early in 1806, Bonaparte again turned the Bourbons out of Naples, and made his brother Joseph king, and when he created Joseph king of Spain, in 1808, he appointed Joachim Murat, one of his generals, to succeed him in Naples. A guerilla warfare was waged in Italy.

The French met the brigands with almost equal cruelty, and a savage guerilla war was carried on, which ended, in 1811, in the entire defeat, and almost in the extirpation, of the robber peasants of Calabria. In 1807 Bonaparte changed the constitution of the kingdom of Italy, and did away with everything which remained of the short-lived liberty which the Italians gained by the invasion of the Revolutionary army. He also made Tuscany, where he had made a Bourbon king, a part of the French empire, and turned away Charles Louis, whom he had set up. In 1809 Pope Pius dared to complain of the injuries which had been done to the Holy See, and refused to acknowledge Joachim Murat as king. In reply, Rome was occupied by the French, the Papal States were declared part of

the French empire, and the pope was taken prisoner, and carried off to France. The same year Bonaparte again made Tuscany into a grand duchy, and set over it his sister Eliza, the wife of a Colonel Bacciocchi, who was also made Duchess of Lucca and Princess of Piombino. Her government was on the whole popular, and lasted until 1814.

The period of the French rule in Italy was marked, as a rnle, by a strict observance of law, and by order in the administration. It was during this time that an intellectual movement began, which reached its full development about thirty years later, but which probably would have never arisen under the dull despotism of the Bourbons. It was now also that the idea seemed first to arise that Italy might become one. Sicily and Sardinia were alone safe from Bonaparte, for the English fleet was master in the Mediterranean.

The power of Bonaparte was at last overthrown by an alliance of the powers of Europe. In the war of 1814, Joachim, king of Naples, deserted his patron, and the French lost Verona and Ancona. The Allies were joined by a detachment of Piedmontese under the flag of King Victor Emmanuel; they carried the war into France, and, on May 31st, entered Paris in triumph. Bonaparte was compelled to give up all claims on Italy, and on the rest of his conquests, and was banished to the little isle of Elba.

In 1815, the Allies met in congress in Vienna, to settle the fate of the countries that Bonaparte had lost. The negotiations of Vienna were interrupted by the news of the escape of Bonaparte; but the danger was averted by the Battle of Waterloo (for detailed account of this famous battle see England, pp. 539-554). The people of Italy hailed with delight the success of the Allies, and joined in driving the French out of their land. Italy fared badly at the Congress of Vienna. Victor Emmanuel received back the territory, which his father had lost, bounded on the east by the Ticino. The restoration of the king of Sardinia was held to be the best safeguard against another French invasion, but it was useless so long as a French army could be landed at Genoa. The Genoese had been encouraged by an envoy from England to drive out the French, and restore their own republic. They were basely deceived, and the city was handed over to the king of Sardinia, and became part of his king

dom. Genoa has gained greatly by this change, but this does not make the crime of betraying her independence any the less. The only excuse which can be put forward is that the change has turned out to have been necessary for the welfare of Italy. No such excuse can be pleaded for giving Venice over to Austria, to make up for the large share of Poland which Russia took. Milan also was given back to the Austrian emperor, Francis II., and thus the Austrian kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia was set up. Parma and Piacenza were given to Maria Louisa, the wife of Bonaparte, the daughter of the Austrian emperor. Lucca was given to the Bourbons of Parma, but, on the death of Maria Louisa, they were to regain their former possessions, and were to give up Lucca. Lucca was then to pass to the family of the Austrian Ferdinand III., who was made grand duke of Tuscany again. Francis IV., the son of Beatrice, heiress of the ancient House of Este and of the Austrian archduke Ferdinand, was made Duke of Modena, and when Lucca was joined to Tuscany, he was to receive Lunigiana from the grand duke. Pope Pius VII. regained all the papal states, including Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, and Ravenna, which had been taken away from the see in 1796. These were called the Northern Legations. Austria claimed the right to place garrisons in Ferrara and Commacchio. The pope protested against this, but a small body of troops was placed in each of these towns. As soon as Pope Pius had re

entered Rome, he restored the order of the Jesuits.

This was agreeable to the wishes of the same governments which had been foremost in causing the suppression of the order, for the Jesuits had shown themselves good allies to the Bourbons in their distress. The kings of the south of Europe, who had suffered from the French Revolution, now with one accord made alliance with the pope and the Jesuits, who seemed the representatives and upholders of the old state of tyranny. The kingdom of Naples was restored to King Ferdinand IV. of Sicily, and he took the title of King of the Two Sicilies. Thus the Austrian Francis II. gained the chief power in Italy, as the Austrians Charles V. and Charles VI. had done. One thing which the wars of Bonaparte had destroyed was not set up again at Vienna. This was the Holy Roman Empire, of which for so long a time the kingdom of Italy had formed a part, first in reality, and then in name alone. The empire, which was in theory elective, had become practically hereditary in the reigning family of Austria. It was founded by Augustus, it was renewed by Charles the Great, it was restored by Otto, and it came to an end by the abdication of Francis II. The peace of Italy was for a moment disturbed. Joachim Murat could not allow his kingdom to pass from him without a blow. He landed with about thirty followers on the coast of Lower Calabria, and was immediately taken and shot.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

HE different powers of Europe acknowledged Philip V. king of Spain; even those that had been most anxiously opposed to the accession of a Bourbon prince. The Dutch were, indeed, alive to the dangers threatening them from an increase of French power. But Louis sent his troops into the Netherlands by an understanding with the elector of Bavaria, whom he had persuaded Charles II. to appoint governor, and surprised a considerable body of Dutch troops, garrisoning some of the fortified towns under an arrangement with Spain; whereupon the states of the United Provinces purchased the liberation of their troops by the recognition of Philip. The emperor alone refused to acknowledge a Bourbon sovereign of Spain, and called upon Europe for assistance to enforce his son's claims, and repress the inordinate ambition of Louis XIV. Leopold began the war in Italy, whither he despatched an army under the celebrated Prince Eugene.

Eugene's success had the more important effect of encouraging the anti-Gallican party throughout Europe. The Grand Alliance between England, Holland, and Austria, for securing to the emperor his just rights and preventing the union of Spain with France, was concluded in August, 1701, and immediately afterwards Louis, by treating the Pretender as king of England upon the death of James II., so exasperated the English nation, that the war which ensued, known by the name of the Succession War, became as popular as William himself could desire.

That able and persevering antagonist of Louis XIV. did not live to conduct the confederation

he had organized. William died in March, 1702, and his successor, Queen Anne, was one of the weakest sovereigns that ever sat upon a throne. But the spirit of the country was now roused, and the queen was compelled to follow up her predecessor's plans. Fortunately for the success of those plans, and for the independence of Europe, her private attachment to the Duchess of Marlborough induced her to place the administration. of public affairs and the command of the army in the hands of two truly great men, Marlborough and Godolphin, who raised England once more to the proud eminence she had occupied in the days of her Henries and her Edwards.

Whilst the Grand Alliance was preparing its means for severing France and Spain, Philip was in quiet possession of his new dominions, and, notwithstanding the constant irritation excited by French interference, had, in the eyes of his subjects, become, as Maceira had predicted, a national king. In Naples only symptoms of dissatisfaction appeared; and thither, by Louis's directions, he determined to go. The only point of difficulty was Philip's reluctance to part from his young and beloved wife. He pleaded hard for leave to take her with him; but Louis, who appears to have been jealous of Maria Louisa's influence over her consort, insisted upon his leaving her behind; and perhaps no stronger instance can be adduced of the despotic authority exercised by the French king over the grandson whom he affected to treat as an independent sovereign, than the obedience paid by Philip to this mandate. He sailed alone; and to pacify the young queen, who was not yet fifteen years of age, the government of Spain was committed to her, with the assistance however of a council of regency.

In the year 1704 the contest for the crown of Spain really and vigorously began. The archduke Charles, accompanied by 8,000 English, and 6,000 Dutch troops, was conveyed to the Peninsula in an English fleet. On the other hand Louis XIV. sent to his grandson's assistance a body of French troops under the command of Marshal Berwick, a natural son of James II. by a sister of Marlborough's. It was in this campaign that Gibraltar was taken by the English, with whom it has ever since remained. But the most memorable military transactions of the year passed in Germany; and, indeed, although the Succession War was essentially a Spanish war, the great battles to which it owes its principal celebrity, and by which the issue was, or ought to have been, decided, were fought in Germany and the Netherlands. At the very breaking out of hostilities in 1702 the Duke of Marlborough was sent to the Low Countries, where, at the head of 60,000 men of British and allied troops, he checked the enterprising genius of the French commanders, and wrested from them several towns. The campaign of 1703 was equally favorable, but not very important.

In the year 1704 the operations in the Netherlands were again indecisive; the main design of the French being, in conjunction with the elector of Bavaria, to surprise and overpower the emperor in his hereditary dominions. One French army had joined the elector; another was on its march; and Leopold, who was at the same time harassed by rebellion in Hungary, seemed upon the brink of inevitable destruction. But the Duke of Marlborough hastened with 36,000 men, drawn from the Netherlands and the banks of the Rhine, to the relief of Austria. He deceived the enemy by his masterly manoeuvres, and effected his junction upon the banks of the Danube with the margrave of Baden, who commanded the troops of those states of the empire that adhered to their emperor. Prince Eugene, who, with 15,000 men, was observing the movements of a French army of 30,000, succeeded in joining Marlborough and the margrave, at the very time that the troops he had been watching joined the elector.

Marlborough and Eugene now determined to engage; and on the 13th of August they attacked the Gallo-Bavarian army, which was strongly posted near Blenheim. They overcame all the difficulties of

the ground, and, after a hard-fought battle, gained the glorious and decisive victory of Blenheim. The French lost 40,000 men, including prisoners; the remainder fled towards the Rhine, and the emperor was completely relieved from the ruin so lately impending over him.

With the further campaigns of Marlborough the reader of this History is already tolerably familiar, and the events of this period may be briefly summarized. Barcelona was besieged by Philip, but at its last extremity was relieved by an English fleet. Philip and his queen quitted Madrid, which was forth with occupied by the British and Portuguese. Berwick, however, was enabled to reinstate Philip in Madrid. The battle of Ramillies was fought. Prince Eugene was successful in Italy. The Imperialists occupied Naples. Berwick gained the battle of Almanza. Catalonia alone remained faithful to Charles. The battle of Oudenarde was fought. The English occupied Sardinia. The Netherlands became wholly occupied by the Allies. Marlborough and Eugene invaded France. Charles defeated Philip twice, and entered Madrid in triumph. The French invaded Catalonia, and Charles was again confined to this province. The Peace of Utrecht was signed upon the 11th of April, 1713. By this treaty Philip was formally recognized as king of Spain and the Indies, and the Duke of Savoy as his heir in default of his own issue, the future succession to the crown being regulated by a sort of compromise between the Spanish and Salic. laws, allowing females to inherit, but, as in Austria, excluding them so long as the most remote collateral male should exist. The Spanish monarchy thus confirmed to Philip, was, however, deprived of its European dependencies, according to the very plan, the suggestion of which had excited such indignation against the Allies. Naples, Sardinia, the Milanese, and the Netherlands, were assigned to the emperor; some few towns being detached from the latter country to strengthen the frontiers of the United Provinces, as also the duchy of Limburg, to form an independent sovereignty for Princess Orsini. Sicily was given to the Duke of Savoy, with the title of King. England retained her conquests, Gibraltar, Minorca, and the French colonies, St. Christopher's, Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and Acadie, now called Nova Scotia. France likewise agreed to destroy the harbor and raze the

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