ing to Charles the duchy of Burgundy, and the superiority of Flanders and Artois. He gave his two sons as hostages for the fulfilment of these conditions; but the states refused to ratify them, and the failure was compromised for a sum of money.

On a renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France, and Charles lost an opportunity of obtaining the sovereignty of Italy. The papal army in the French interest was defeated by the constable of Bourbon, and the pope himself made prisoner. Bourbon was killed in the siege of Rome, which he had wantonly, and in defiance of a stipulated truce, attacked, and Charles allowed the pope to be ransomed.

After the conclusion of the peace of Cambray, 1529, which restored to the two sons of Francis their liberty, and to the king, their father, the duchy of Burgundy, Charles visited Italy, and received the imperial diadem from Pope Clement VII., disposing of the different states of Lombardy to various princes for what money he could get. The Turks having invaded Hungary, the emperor marched against them in person, assisted by his brother Ferdinand, and compelled the Sultan Solyman, with an army of three hundred thousand men, to evacuate the country. He soon after embarked for Africa, to replace the dethroned Muley Hassan in the sovereignty of Tunis and Algiers, which had been usurped by Hayradin Barbarossa, and he achieved the enterprise with honor. His reputation at this period exceeded that of all the sovereigns of Europe, both for political ability, for real power, and the extent and opulence of his dominions; but he had a hard task upon his hands, having at one and the same time to guard against the Turks and the French, and the latter both on the north and the south.

Francis was glad to ally himself even with the Turks, to cope with the Imperialists, and Barbarossa invaded Italy; but the troops of Charles prevented the co-operation of the French, and separately defeated and dispersed the allied powers, while another army of the Imperialists ravaged Champagne and Picardy. In the interval of truce, which was concluded at Nice for ten years between the rival monarchs, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and was entertained by Francis with the most magnificent hospitality.

He had promised to grant to the French king his

favorite desire, the investiture of Milan; but, failing to keep his word, the war was renewed with double animosity. The French and Turkish fleets attacked Nice, but were dispersed by the Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, a person whose name is justly celebrated in history as the restorer of the liberties of his country. In Italy the French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, but drew no benefit from this partial advantage. The Imperialists, on the whole, had a decided superiority, and France must have been undone, had not the disorders of Germany, from the contending interests of the Catholics and Protestants, forced the emperor to conclude the treaty of Crépi with Francis, 1544; who, at the same time, purchased a peace with Henry VIII., who had once more taken part with his rival. Francis died soon after, that is, in 1547: a prince of great spirit and abilities, and of a generous and noble mind, if we make allowances for some strange inconsistencies into which he was betrayed by his politics; unfortunate only from the necessity of struggling against a power which overmatched him both in policy and in resources.

Charles died 21st September, 1558, at the monastery St. Juste, having abdicated in favor of his son. Philip II., 1556, if less powerful than his father, was still by far the greatest monarch in Europe. The balance of power in Europe was sustained by Spain, France, England, and Germany, all at this time highly flourishing and respectable, either from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength: though England was more encumbered, and more vulnerable than the rest, owing to the bad footing she was upon both with Scotland and Ireland, and of which her rivals knew but too well how to take advantage. Elizabeth, Henry IV., and Philip II., were all acute and able politicians, though the policy of the last partook more of selfish craft, and had less of the manly and heroic than either of his rival monarchs. Philip was at this time sovereign of Spain, the Two Sicilies, Milan, and the Netherlands. He had likewise, for a few years, the power of England at his command, by his marriage with Mary, the elder sister and predecessor of Elizabeth.

Pope Paul IV., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alliance with Henry II. of France, to deprive the Spaniards of Milan and the Sicilies, most of the cardinals being in opposition to him,

as pensioners of the Spanish court. Philip, with the aid of the English, at the moment that the Duke of Guise was advancing towards the south, defeated the French at St. Quentin in Picardy, and hoped, from this signal victory-the whole of the French infantry being destroyed, and almost all the general officers taken prisoners-to force the allies into a peace; but the Duke of Guise, returning in good time from Italy, recovered the spirits of the French by the taking of Calais from the English, which they had now possessed for more than two hundred years.

Another great victory, however,

obtained by Philip, near Gravelines, brought on the treaty of Chateau-Cambresis, 1559, by which the French surrendered to Spain no less than eightynine fortified towns in the Low Countries and in Italy.

Philip now endeavored to conciliate, 1559, his free and wealthy Netherland subjects, ere quitting them for Spain. For this purpose he appointed his illegitimate sister Margaret, duchess of Parma, supreme governess, named native governors of the different provinces, and promised to withdraw his Spanish troops, as well as all foreign officers. But unfortunately he selected Granvelle, bishop of Arras, for his sister's chief counsellor, commanding her to regulate her administration by his advice; and he charged him, as well as all the other bishops and archbishops of the Low Countries, strictly to put down heresy.

Great delay occurred in the promised withdrawing of the Spanish troops, and the Netherlanders, a commercial, active, and opulent race, enjoying in their several provinces the blessing of very free constitutions, secured to them by the old charters of Philip's ancestors, and accustomed to watch as jealously as they turbulently resisted and resented every violation of their privileges, were greatly offended. Protestant opinions had lately spread amongst them, and the severity with which Margaret was enjoined to put down heresy caused much exasperation, not only amongst the converts to those opinions, but amongst the most orthodox Catholics, such measures being considered both as infringing upon their legal privileges, and as preparatory to the introduction of the detested Inquisition. Granvelle was looked upon as the instigator of every offensive step, and thence becoming an object of general hatred, earnest remonstrances and petitions

for his recall were sent to Philip, by all the principal nobles. But Philip was inflexible. Heresy must be extirpated at all risks, and everything foreboded an approaching insurrection in the Netherlands.

In Spain he followed a similar course. He cele brated his return to his native land by Autos de Fe, or processes of Faith, as the jail-deliveries of the Inquisition are called in Spanish. At these solemnities, numbers of persons of both sexes, many belonging to religious orders, and some of high rank, were burnt for heretical opinions, Philip being present at the executions, and sending spies through the crowds of spectators, to detect any symptoms of compassion for the sufferers: such symptoms marked the individuals betraying them as objects of suspicion. The converted Moors next engaged his attention. He ordered them to be deprived of their arms; an order which, to a great extent, was successfully executed before they were prepared for resistance. Severe decrees were then rigidly enforced against various Mahometan superstitions and customs, in which they were accused of indulging; amongst others, the use of the Moorish language, and the veil worn by their women when they appeared in public. The temper of the Moors, who, whatever might be their attachment to the habits. and the faith of their ancestors, had proved loyal subjects to Charles, was thus exasperated, and seeds of rebellion were evidently germinating in Granada as well as in the Netherlands.

These violent measures may be considered as proving the truth of Philip's declaration, that "he had rather not be a king, than rule over heretics or infidels;" and, in fact, although he was clearly to the full as ambitious as his more enterprising father, and, from the sternness of his temper, far more intolerant of popular rights and privileges, yet bigotry was assuredly the predominant passion, to which he was prepared to sacrifice every other consideration. Some historians have represented his devoted attachment to Catholicism as a mask, assumed to conceal his ambitious designs; and his Spanish admirers ascribe to him a degree of political prudence equalling that of his great-grandfather, Ferdinand; but such views are manifestly repugnant to much of his history. In most of his enterprises he failed; and his failures were usually the result of a want of political prudence, only expli

cable, in a prince of his acknowledged capacity, by the overwhelming force of his bigotry.

In the Netherlands, although Philip at length so far yielded to the remonstrances of his sister and the nobles, as to remove Granvelle, for whom he had obtained a cardinal's hat from Rome, and who became one of his favorite counsellors in Spain, he still insisted upon the most rigorous measures against heretics.

In 1568, the Duke of Alva was appointed sole governor of the Netherlands. Alva was as relentless and bigoted as his master; and in his hands the persecution of heretics did not languish. The most frightful tortures were employed to extort confession. Egmont and Horn were beheaded as traitors. Eighteen hundred persons are said to have been put to death within the first few months for their religious opinions; and the zeal of the persecutor rather increased than slackened. Petitions for mercy were incessantly transmitted to Philip, but rejected with disdain. The emperor Maximilian II., who had now succeeded to his father Ferdinand, interfered, by recommending a more moderate course to his cousin and brother-in-law: but Philip replied, that the Netherlands forming no part of the empire, the emperor had no concern with them; and he disregarded even the pope's remonstrances against Alva's excessive cruelty. For a while, however, this cruelty seemed to answer. The country was cowed. The Protestants concealed themselves, or fled to happier lands; and when the Prince of Orange led a German army to their support or deliverance, few or none joined him. Alva, with consummate ability, watched his movements, constantly harassing him, without offering a single opportunity of forcing a battle, until the prince was at length obliged to disband his troops, for want of means to pay them, and again to seek safety in voluntary exile. Alva now boasted that he had crushed both sedition and heresy. He erected his own statue at Antwerp, in honor of his success, and, in compliance with Philip's desire, offered succors to Charles IX. of France against his heretical subjects, which were thankfully accepted.

During nearly the whole of his reign, Philip was engaged in hostilities with the Ottoman Porte and the Barbary Corsairs. The Mahometans ravaged his coasts, and annoyed the commerce of his subjects; and in the commencement of his reign, his

troops failed in an attempt to recover the island of Gelves from the Corsair Dragut. But the Turks were similarly repulsed with extraordinary gallantry, by the Spanish garrisons of the African fortresses of Oran and Mazarquivir, and the Peñon de Velez, which had been conquered under Ferdinand, lost under Charles V., and had since become the favorite shelter of the pirates who infested the coast of Spain, was recovered. It is said to have been for the purpose of revenging this loss, that Sultan Selim attacked Malta with overpowering numbers; but in truth, no particular motive seems necessary to account for the Turks assailing the stronghold of the knights of St. John, whose whole existence was, in those days, still dedicated to war with the Infidels. The siege is memorable for the unparalleled courage and fortitude with which the knights, under their grand master de la Valette, defended their citadel, until, when it appeared impossible to hold out longer, Philip sent an armament under Don Garcia de Toledo, viceroy of Sicily, to their relief; and the Turks, after suffering a very inconsiderable defeat from Toledo, raised the siege and set sail for Constantinople.

Why Philip delayed his assistance to the last moment, does not appear. As little why, when the Turks were attacking the island of Cyprus, belonging to the Venetians, he deferred instructing his admiral Doria to co-operate with the Venetian and papal squadrons, against the fleet of the besiegers, until it was too late to save the island. But in the year 1571, he acted more vigorously against the common enemy of Christendom. A fleet of two hundred sail, large and small, carrying fifty thousand men, was equipped, half by Spain, one-third by Venice, and one-sixth by the pope; and the chief command intrusted to Don John. He sought the naval forces of the Ottomans in their own seas, and after an obstinate battle, gained the celebrated victory of Lepanto, over nearly double his numbers. In this engagement, the Turks lost two hundred vessels, sunk or taken, and their admiral Aly Pacha, with thirty-five thousand men slain or prisoners; and Don John had the gratification of releasing about fifteen thousand Christian slaves, employed by the Turks to row their galleys. This splendid victory produced scarcely any other result than the establishing Don John's reputation as one of the greatest generals of that age, when little or no dis

tinction seems to have existed between the land and sea service. The different interests of the allies, and the different tempers of their several commanders, prevented the success from being followed up.

At the "Peace of Utrecht," Jan. 23, 1579, it was agreed that the whole seventeen provinces of the Netherlands should defend their liberties as one united republic; that they should jointly determine in matters of peace and war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain a liberty of conscience in matters of religion. These seven United Provinces were, Guelderland, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Overyssel, and Groningen. William of Orange was declared their chief magistrate, general, and admiral, by the title of Stadtholder.

Philip, from his cabinet at Madrid-for he kept aloof himself from all these commotions-vented his indignation by a proscription of the Prince of Orange, offering, after the example of the French, who had done the same by the prince's father-inlaw, Coligni, 25,000 crowns for his head; and he compassed his revenge, for this illustrious man was cut off by an assassin, 1584, not exactly through hope of the reward, but through religious fanaticism. His son Maurice was elected stadtholder in his room, and sustained his important part with great courage and ability, aided by Queen Elizabeth, who delighted to traverse the plans of Philip. The infant commonwealth accomplished and secured its independence, becoming every day more formidable at sea, where she was soon as able to cope with her oppressor as on land. The other ten provinces, whose discontents were expressed only by murmur and complaint, were soothed by a new charter from Philip, confirming their privileges; while at the same time he took every possible measure to prevent any attempt on their part to throw off the yoke. These provinces continued to profess the Roman Catholic faith.

The treaty of confederation of the Seven United Provinces, framed in 1579, and solemnly renewed in 1583, was declared to be, by its nature, indissoluble. Each province thereby preserved its own laws, its magistrates, its sovereignty, and its independence. William, the first stadtholder, did not abuse these high powers, nor did his successors, Maurice and Henry Frederick. But under William II. the states became jealous of an exorbitant authority in their

chief magistrate, and on his death the office was for some time abolished. In that interval, the republic was almost annihilated by the arms of Louis XIV.; and, sensible of their error, they restored the office of stadtholder in the person of William III., who retrieved the fortunes and honor of his country. In gratitude for his services, the dignity was made hereditary in his family, a solecism in the government of a republic. On the death of William without issue, the office was once more abolished for twenty years, when it was again restored, and declared hereditary in the family of Orange, and descendible even to the issue of a daughter. only restrictions being, that the succeeding prince should be of the Protestant religion, and neither king nor elector of the German empire.

The

The loss of the Netherlands was in some degree compensated to Philip by the acquisition of the kingdom of Portugal. Muley Mahomet, king of Fez and Morocco, dethroned by his uncle Muley Moluc, solicited the aid of Don Sebastian, king of Portugal, to regain his throne. Sebastian landed with an army in Africa, but was defeated by the Moors and slain; and not one man of his whole army returned to Portugal: the contending Moorish princes also perished in the same engagement. Sebastian was succeeded by his grand-uncle Don Henry, a priest and cardinal, who died after a reign of two years. The competitors for the crown were Don Antonio, prior of Crato, and Philip II., paternal and maternal uncles of the last sovereign. Catherine de Medicis also, the dowager queen of France, made pretensions to the vacant throne, though professing to espouse the cause of Don Antonio. Philip defeated his rival in a decisive engagement at sea, the French supporting the latter, and, without further opposition, took possession of the throne of Portugal, 1580.

Elizabeth of England had warmly espoused the cause of the revolted Netherlands, 1581-1592, and considering herself as at war with Spain, had carried on hostilities at sea. Sir Francis Drake, the best seaman of the age, had ravaged the coasts of Spain and Portugal, had burned rich merchantmen in the very harbor of Cadiz, and committed yet greater devastation upon Philip's transatlantic possessions; where, besides doing other damage, he had taken and sacked the towns of St. Domingo and Carthagena, further levying heavy contributions, by threats

of burning them. In 1588, Philip determined to end the war by the conquest of England. With this view he ordered the Duke of Parma to unite his troops upon the sea-coast, and prepare the vessels requisite for transporting them to England, under the protection of the powerful armament, arrogantly termed the Invincible Armada, which he was sending out both to guard his passage and to destroy the English fleets.

SYNOPSIS OF EVENTS BETWEEN JOAN OF ARC'S VICTORY AT ORLEANS, A.D. 1429, AND THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, Á.D. 1588.

A.D. 1452. Final expulsion of the English from France. 1453. Constantinople taken, and the Roman empire of the East destroyed by the Turkish Sultan Mahomet II.

1455. Commencement of the civil wars in England between the Houses of York and Lancaster.

1479. Union of the Christian kingdoms of Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella.

1492. Capture of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella, and end of the Moorish dominion in Spain.

1492. Columbus discovers the New World. 1494. Charles VIII. of France invades Italy.

1497. Expedition of Vasco di Gama to the East Indies round the Cape of Good Hope.

1503. Naples conquered from the French by the great Spanish general, Gonsalvo of Cordova.

1508. League of Cambray, by the Pope, the Emperor, and the King of France, against Venice.

1509. Albuquerque establishes the empire of the Portuguese in the East Indies.

1516. Death of Ferdinand of Spain; he is succeeded by his grandson Charles, afterwards the Emperor Charles V.

1517. Dispute between Luther and Tetzel respecting the sale of indulgences, which is the immediate cause of the Reformation.

1519. Charles V. is elected Emperor of Germany. 1520. Cortez conquers Mexico.

1525. Francis I. of France defeated and taken prisoner by the imperial army at Pavia.

1529. League of Smalcald formed by the Protestant princes of Germany.

1533. Henry VIII. renounces the Papal supremacy. 1533. Pizarro conquers Peru.

1556. Abdication of the Emperor Charles V. Philip II. becomes King of Spain, and Ferdinand I. Emperor of Germany. 1557. Elizabeth becomes Queen of England.

1557. The Spaniards defeat the French at the battle of St. Quentin.

1571. Don John of Austria at the head of the Spanish fleet, aided by the Venetian and the Papal squadrons, defeats the Turks at Lepanto.

1572. Massacre of the Protestants in France on St. Bartholomew's day.

1579. The Netherlands revolt against Spain. 1580. Philip II. conquers Portugal.

The Defeat of the Spanish Armada.

A.D. 1588.

On the afternoon of the 19th of July, 1588, a group of English captains was collected at the Bowling Green on the Hoe at Plymouth, whose equals have never before or since been brought together, even at that favorite mustering-place of the heroes of the British navy. There was Sir Francis Drake, the first English circumnavigator of the globe, the terror of every Spanish coast in the Old World and the New; there was Sir John Hawkins, the rough veteran of many a daring voyage on the African and American seas, and of many a desperate battle; there was Sir Martin Frobisher, one of the earliest explorers of the Arctic seas in search of that North-West Passage which is still the darling object of England's boldest mariners. There was the high-admiral of England, Lord Howard of Effingham, prodigal of all things in his country's cause, and who had recently had the noble daring to refuse to dismantle part of the fleet, though the Queen had sent him orders to do so, in consequence of an exaggerated report that the enemy had been driven back and shattered by a storm. Lord Howard (whom contemporary writers describe as being of a wise and noble courage, skilful in sea matters, wary and provident, and of great esteem among the sailors) resolved to risk his sovereign's anger, and to keep the ships afloat at his own charge, rather than that England should run the peril of losing their protection.

Another of the Elizabethan sea-kings, Sir Walter Raleigh, was at that time commissioned to raise and equip the landforces of Cornwall; but, as he was also commander of Plymouth, we may well believe that he must have availed himself of the opportunity of consulting with the lord-admiral and other high officers which was offered by the English fleet putting into that port; and we may look on Raleigh as one of the group that was assembled at the Bowling Green on the Hoe. Many other brave men and skilful mariners, besides the chiefs whose names have been mentioned, were there, enjoying, with true sailor-like merriment, their temporary relaxation from duty. In the harbor lay the English fleet with which they had just returned from a cruise to Corunna in search of information respecting the real condition and movements of the hostile Armada. Lord Howard had ascertained that the enemies, though tempest-tost, were still formidably strong; and fearing that part of their fleet might make for England in his absence, he had hurried back to the Devonshire coast. He resumed his station at Plymouth, and waited there for certain tidings of the Spaniard's approach.

A match at bowls was being played, in which Drake and other high officers of the fleet were engaged, when a small armed vessel was seen running before the wind into Plymouth harbor, with all sails set. Her commander landed in haste, and eagerly sought the place where the English lord-admiral and his captains were standing. His name was Fleming; he was the master of a Scotch privateer; and he told the English officers that he had that morning seen the Spanish Armada off the Cornish coast. At this exciting information the captains began to hurry down to the water, and there was a shouting fo the ship's boats: but Drake coolly checked his comrades, and insisted that the match should be played out. He said that there was plenty of time both to win the game and beat the Spaniards. The best and bravest match that ever was