uous residences of the Brahmins; and the ancient hill fortresses, constructed with prodigious strength and solidity, evince a great advancement in the arts: as the resort of the most polished nations of antiquity to that country for cotton cloths, fine linen, and works in metal and in ivory, proves the superior state of those manufactures to all known at that time in Europe.

The translations from the Sanscrit of several ingenious compositions of high antiquity, as the dramatic piece "Sacontala," the "Hitopadesa," a series of moral apologues and fables, the "Malabaret," an epic poem, composed above 2000 years before the Christian era, -all concur in proof of a similar advancement in literature; and we have reason to believe, from such works as are of a philosophical nature, that there is scarce a tenet of the Greek philosophy that has not been antecedently the subject of discussion among the Brahmins of India.

The numeral ciphers, first introduced into Europe by the Arabians, were, as confessed by those authors themselves, borrowed from the Indians. It is above

a century since the French philosophers evinced, by the evidence of a Siamese manuscript, containing tables for calculating the places of the heavenly bodies, the astonishing advancement made by this ancient people in the science of astronomy. A set of tables obtained from the Brahmins by M. Gentil, goes back to an era termed Calyougham, commencing 3,102 years before the birth of Christ. These tables have been used by modern Brahmins.

Lastly, from the religious opinions and worship of the Hindus, we must draw the same conclusion as from all the preceding facts. On the whole, there is a high probability that India was the great school from which the most early polished nations of Europe derived their knowledge of the arts, of science, and of literature.

ROCEEDING eastward in the survey of the immense Asiatic continent, the great empire of China next solicits our attention. In the end of the tenth century, China, Persia, and the greatest part of India were ruled by the descendants of Genghis-Khan. The Tartar family of Yveu, who conquered China, made no change in its laws and system of government, which had been permanent from time immemorial. Of this family there reigned nine successive monarchs, without any attempt by the Chinese to throw off the Tartar yoke. The odious and contemptible character of the last of these sovereigns at length excited a rebellion, which, in 1357, drove the Tartars from the throne; and the Chinese, for two hundred and seventy-six years, obeyed their native princes. At that period a second revolution gave the throne once more to the Tartars. Taking advantage of an insurrection in one of the provinces, they invaded China in 1641, and made an easy conquest. The emperor shut himself up in his palace; and, after putting to death all his family, finished the scene by hanging himself. The same Tartars occupy the throne of China at this day, and observe the same wise policy of maintaining inviolate the Chinese laws, policy, and manners.

The empire of Japan was discovered by the Portuguese about the middle of the sixteenth century. The open and unsuspicious character of this indus

trious and polished people led them to encourage the resort of foreigners to their ports; and the Spaniards, after they had obtained the sovereignty of Portugal, carried on a most beneficial trade to the coast of Japan,-the commodities procured from thence consisting of the finest sort of tea, gold, silver, and copper, the most beautiful porcelain, ambergris, etc. The emperor zealously promoted this intercourse, till the insatiable ambition of the Spaniards gave him alarming conviction of its danger. Under the pretence of converting the Japanese from idolatry, a vast number of priests were sent into the country, and one half of the people were speedily set at mortal variance with the other.

It now became necessary to prohibit this work of conversion by an imperial edict. Still, however, a free trade was allowed till 1637, when a conspiracy of the Spaniards was discovered for dethroning the emperor and seizing the government. An edict was issued for the expulsion of all the Spaniards and Portuguese, who were mad enough to resist, till overpowered by force of arms. Since that period all the European nations have been excluded from the ports of Japan. The Dutch only, who had been the discoverers of the conspiracy of the Spaniards, are allowed the privilege of landing on one of the small islands, for the purposes of trade, after making oath that they are not of the Portuguese religion.

CHINA.

The antiquity of this vast empire, and the state of its government, laws, manners, and attainments in the arts, and sciences, have furnished a most ample field of controversy. Voltaire, Raynal, and other writers of similar principles, have, for the purpose of discrediting the scriptural account of the origin of mankind, and the received notions of the age of the universe, given to the Chinese empire an immense antiquity, and a character of such high civilization and knowledge of the sciences and arts at that remote period, as to be utterly irreconcilable with the state and progress of man as described in the Book of Moses. On the other hand, it is probable that the desire of invalidating those opinions. has induced other writers to go to an opposite extreme. Amidst this contrariety of sentiments, we shall endeavor to form such opinion as appears most consonant to the truth.

The panegyrists of the Chinese assert that their empire has subsisted above 4,000 years, without any material alteration in its laws, manners, language, or even fashion of dress; in evidence of which, they appeal to a series of eclipses, marking contemporary events, all accurately calculated 2,155 years before the birth of Christ. As it is easy to calculate eclipses backwards from the present day to any given period of time, it is thus possible to give to a history, fictitious from beginning to end, its chronology of real eclipses.

This proof, therefore, amounts to nothing, unless it were likewise proved that all these eclipses were actually recorded at the time when they happened; but this neither has been nor can be done; for it is an allowed fact that there are no regular historical records beyond the third century before the Christian era. But if the authentic annals of this empire go back even to the third century before Christ, and record at that time a high state of civilization, we must allow that the Chinese are an ancient and early polished people, and that they have possessed a singular constancy in their government, laws, and manners. Sir William Jones traces their origin to the Hindus. He appeals to the ancient Sanscrit records, which mention a migration from India of certain of the military class termed Chinas to the countries east of Bengal.

The government of China is that of an absolute

monarchy. The patriarchal system pervades the whole, and binds all the members of this vast empire in the strictest subordination. Every father is absolute in his family, and may inflict any punishment short of death upon his children. The mandarin of the district is absolute, with the power of life and death over all its members; but a capital sentence cannot be inflicted without the emperor's approbation. The emperor's power is absolute over all the mandarins, and every subject of the empire. To reconcile the people to this despotic authority, the sovereign alone is entitled to relieve the wants of the poor, and to compensate public calamities, as well as the misfortunes of individuals. He is, therefore, regarded as the father of his people, and even adored as a benevolent divinity.

Another circumstance which conciliates the people to their government is, that all honors in China are conferred according to merit, and that chiefly literary. The civil mandarins, who are the magistrates and judges, are appointed to office according to their measure of knowledge and mental endowments. No office or rank is hereditary, but may be aspired to by the meanest of the people; and it may be regarded as a great proof of the discernment of some of the emperors, and of their deference to public opinion, that they have been known, in a very extraordinary manner, to honor the memory of able and virtuous ministers. One of the princes. of their thirteenth dynasty, not only built a superb mausoleum to commemorate the wisdom and virtues of one of his servants, but wrote the inscription for it with his own hand, though he had to record that he had himself not unfrequently been the object of his just and honest reproofs.

The penal laws of China are remarkably severe, but their execution may be remitted by the emperor. The judicial tribunals are regulated by a body of written laws of great antiquity, and founded on the basis of universal justice and equity. The emperor's opinion rarely differs from the sentences of those courts. One tribunal judges of the qualifications of the mandarins; another regulates the morals of the people, and the national manners; a third is the tribunal of censors, which reviews the laws, the conduct of the magistrates and judges, and even that of the emperor himself. These tribunals are filled by an equal number of Chinese and Tartars.

The sciences have been stationary in this empire for many ages; and they are at this day extremely low, though far beyond the attainments of a barbarous people. The language of China seems to oppose the prosecution of speculative researches. It has no regular inflections, and can with difficulty express abstract ideas. The ignorance of the Chinese in mathematics and astronomy is proverbial. Of physics they have no acquaintance beyond the knowledge of apparent facts. Their knowledge of medicine is extremely limited, and is blended with the most absurd superstition. Of anatomy they know next to nothing, and in surgery their highest achievement is that of the reduction in the size of the feet of their women.

The Chinese are said to have manufactured glass for two thousand years, yet at this day it is inferior in transparency to the European. Gunpowder they are reputed to have known from time immemorial, but they never employed it in artillery or fire-arms, till taught by the Europeans. Printing they are said to have invented in the age of Julius Cæsar, yet at this hour they print from blocks of wood. When first shown the use of the compass in sailing, they affirmed that they were well acquainted with it, but found no occasion to employ it. The art of painting in China is mere mechanical imitation, without grace, expression, or even accuracy of proportions. Of the rules of perspective they have not the smallest idea. In sculpture, as in the figures of their idols, the Chinese artists seem to delight in distortion and deformity. Their music is not regulated by any principles of science; they have no semi-tones, and their instruments are imperfect and untuneable. The Chinese architecture has variety, lightness, and sometimes elegance; but has no grandeur of symmetrical beauty. Yet in some of the arts, the Chinese have attained to great perfection. Agriculture is carried in China to the highest pitch of improvement. There is not a spot of waste land in the whole empire, nor any which is not highly cultivated. The emperor himself is the chief of the husbandmen, and annually holds the plough in his own hands. Hence, and from the modes of economizing food, is supported the astonishing population of 333,000,000, or 260 inhabitants to every square mile of the empire. The manufacture of porcelain is an original invention of these people.

The morals of the Chinese have furnished subjects both of encomium and censure. The books of Confucius are said to contain a most admirable system of morality; but the principles of morals have their foundation in human nature, and must, in theory, be everywhere the same. The moral virtues of a people are not to be estimated from the books of their philosophers. It is probable that the manners of the superior classes are, in China, as elsewhere, much influenced by education and example. The morals of the lower classes are said to be beyond measure loose, and their practices most dishonest; nor are they regulated by any principle but selfish interest, or restrained but by the fear of punishment.

The religion of the Chinese is different in the different ranks of society. There is no religion of the state. The emperor and the higher mandarins profess the belief of one Supreme Being, Changti, whom they worship by prayer and thanksgiving, without any mixture of idolatrous practices. They respect the Lama of Thibet as the high-priest or prophet of this religion. A prevalent sect is that of Tao-sse, who believe in the power of magic, the agency of spirits, and the divining of future events. A third is the sect of Fo, derived from India, whose priests are the Bonzes, and whose fundamental doctrine is, that all things rose out of nothing, and finally must return to it; that all animals are first to undergo a series of transmigrations; and that, as man's chief happiness is to approach as near as possible to a state of annihilation in this life, absolute idleness is more laudable than occupation of any kind. A variety of hideous idols are worshipped by this sect.

The Chinese have their sacred books, termed Kings; as the Yking, Chouking, etc.; which, amidst some good moral precepts, contain much mystery, childish superstition, and absurdity. These are chiefly resorted to for the divining of future events, which seems the ultimatum of research among the Chinese philosophers. The observation of the heavenly bodies is made for that purpose alone: the changes of weather, the performance or omission of certain ceremonies, the occurrence of certain events in particular times and places, are all believed to have their influence on futurity, and are, therefore, carefully observed and recorded; and the rules by which those omens are interpreted are said to have