matted and unsightly hair, which she will not allow them to touch.

'But when she was fully array'd,
And her attire was all assay'd,

Then was she fouler unto see.'

Poor Florent takes her less for better than for worse, and, the ceremony over, covers his head in grief:

'His body mighte well be there;

But as of thought and of memoire
His hearte was in Purgatoire.'

She would ingratiate herself in his affections, and approaching him takes him softly by the hand. He turns suddenly and beholds a vision of sweet smiles and beautiful eyes. He would come nearer, is stopped, and told —

'that for to win or lose

He mote one of two thinges choose,
Wher he will have her such o' night
Or elles upon daye's light;

For he shall not have bothe two.'

At loss, conscious only of his idolatry, he at last exclaims,—

"I n'ot what answer I shall give,
But ever, while that I may live,
I will that ye be my mistress,
For I can naught myselve guess
Which is the best unto my choice.
Thus grant I you my whole voice.
Choose for us bothen, I you pray,
And, what as ever that ye say,
Right as ye wille, so will I.""

[whether

This is the point—the surrender of his will to hers. This is 'What alle women most desire'—to be sovereign of man's love -in short to have their own way. Foretaste of Paradise for the happy groom, whose cup is now filled to overflowing:

"My lord," she saide, "grand-merci
For of this word that ye now sayn
That ye have made me sovereign,
My destiny is overpassed;
That n'er hereafter shall be lass'd
My beauty, which that I now have,
Till I betake unto my grave.
Both night and day as I am now,
I shall always be such to you.
Thus, I am yours for evermo."

[many thanks

[lessened

As an artist, partly the reformer and partly the story-teller, Gower bridges the space between Langland and Chaucer. His English, too, in vocabulary and structure is later than the first

He

and earlier than the second. His metre is the octosyllabic, of four iambics. His rhythm is more smooth than melodious. is touched only by French influence. There are extant about fifty French amatory sonnets composed by him in imitation of Provençal models. On the whole, like the dozen of translators who copy, compile, abridge, he constructs an encyclopædia, a textbook, in rhymed memoranda; but if excellence be comparative and all criticism relative to the age, we may hail this grave father of our poesy, whose verses, if destitute of creative touches, are stamped with the force of ethical reasoning. Amid triflers, he is earnest, with a deep-rooted idea that the minstrel should be a preacher. In his political admonitions, in his satire on the relaxed morals of the Pulpit, the Bench, the Bar, the Throne, and the Court, he sounds the deep tones of the patriot. He says:

'I do not affect to touch the stars, or write the wonders of the poles; but rather, with the common human voice that is lamenting in this land, I write the ills I see. In the voice of my crying there will be nothing doubtful, for every man's knowledge will be its best interpreter.'

Again:

'Give me that there shall be less vice, and more virtue for my speaking.'

In

Only one of his three great works has been opened to the world, but the marble perpetuates what the press does not. the Southwark Church of St. Saviour, his image lies extended on the tomb, with folded hands, in damask habit flowing to his feet; his head supported by three sculptured volumes' and decked with a garland of roses, while three visionary virgins, Charity, Mercy, and Pity, solicit the prayer of the passer-by for the soul of the dreamless sleeper.

The fashions of man have their date and their termination. The fourteenth century is memorable as the era in which the romance-poetry of France, displaced in form, declines in substance. Even comedy cannot thrive on trifles. The literature that has not truth or seriousness must die. Life does not move through a perpetual May-day, nor is it invigorated in gorgeous idleness. Nourished on this poetry, another taste is springing up, which is to seek its subjects, not in France, but in the chaster Roman and Grecian lore. A new spirit pierces through,no longer the childish imitation of chivalrous life, but the crav

1 Speculum Meditantis (Mirror of One Meditating), in French; Vox Clamantis (Voice of One Crying), in Latin; Confessio Amantis, in English;- equally graced with Latin titles, though in three languages.

ing for deep truths. English poetry, as distinguished on the one hand from the pedantry and barrenness of the romancers, and on the other from the impulsive cries of Beowulf, begins with Chaucer, the first skilled and conscious workman; who, ceasing to repeat, observes; whose characters, no longer a phantom procession, are living and distinct persons,- individualized and typical; and who, seeking material in the common forest of the middle ages, replants it in his own soil, to send out new shoots and enduring bloom.

Prose. Our early literature, as formerly observed, is almost exclusively one of poetry. Records, chronicles, books of instruction, of science, there are; but of prose, as the embodiment of high art, there is absolutely none. As we have cathedrals while the builders live in hovels, so, under the impulse of the imaginative sentiment, we have poetry before we have prose, which passes into pure literature only when the views of men have settled down to sober truth, and art is so diffused as to give grace and expression to things familiar and homely.

Divines and philosophers, mathematicians and scientists, write in Latin. The prose works in English have an archaic and moral rather than an artistic interest. Mandeville and Wycliffe the one in his travels, the other in his translations of the Bible— are, in the mixed vernacular, the first reapers on the margin of the great future of English prose.

History. In this mixed state of glory clouded with barbarism, there is, there can be, no annalist deserving the name of historian. The chroniclers have the usual aptitude for credence, unastonished at astonishing events, credulous and happy by constitution and contagion. They begin, as usual, ab initio, with the Conquest, and reach home, across chasms supplied by an ever-ready fancy. The narrative grows like a rolling snowball, gathering whatever lies in its path, fact or legend, appropriate or inappropriate. The readers or hearers are as well prepared to believe as the writers are prompt to collate. A hundred years hence the first peer' of the realm will be proud of deriving his pedigree from a fabulous knight in a romantic genealogy.

Of plumed knights and penitential saints, of warring kings

1 Duke of Buckingham.

and feasting nobles, of furious and raving figures, we have a plenty; but of history that will trace the ideal tendencies of the age, that will exhibit the world of ideas, the life of the people as a drama in which good and evil fight their everlasting battle, of history in which calmness of insight exists with in-. tensity of feeling, there is yet no prophecy.

Philosophy.-This consists, for the most part, in ringing changes on the syllogism,—

'Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio,

Cesare, Camestres, Festino, Baroko,' etc.;

circulating in endless vortices; creating, swallowing,— itself. Inductions, corollaries, dilemmas, logical diagrams, cast wonderful horoscopes, but end-where perhaps all metaphysical speculation ends, as to the stolen jewel of our search-in nothingness.

The old dispute, long dormant, was now revived with a whiteheat of disputation. The Realists maintained that universal ideas or essences belonged to the class of real things, either eternally impressed upon matter or eternally existent in the Divine Mind as the models of created objects; while the Nominalists held that these pretended universals had neither form nor essence, but were merely modes of conception, existing solely in and for the mind,— only individuals are real.

Of Nominalism, Occam' was now the eminent spokesman. The universal, he argues, exists in the mind, not substantially, but as a representation; while outwardly it is only a word, or in general a sign, of whatever kind, representing conventionally several objects. Only an a posteriori proof of the being of God, and that not a rigorous one, is possible. As for the rest, the 'articles of faith' have not even the advantage of probability for the wise, and especially for those who trust to the natural reason. Here only the authority of the Bible and Christian tradition should be accepted. Theological doctrines are not demonstrable, yet the will to believe the indemonstrable is meritorious. Thus reason and faith are antagonized, the critical method rises to an independent rank, and, with the coöperation of other influences tending in the same direction, the way is prepared for an inductive investigation of external nature and psychical phenomena.

1A Franciscan of the severe order, and a pupil of Duns Scotus; born in the county of Surrey, died April 7, 1347.

The bearings of the discussion upon vital theology explain the furious energy of the disputants. If, for example, the universal is a mere symbol, Christ—the Infinite- is not really present in the Eucharist. If Realism is false, the doctrine of the Trinity, according to which the one divine essence is entirely present in each of the three divine persons, is false. Distinctions of less moment might in the Ages of Faith shatter an empire. Hence it was that the University of Paris, by a public edict (1339) solemnly condemned and prohibited the philosophy of Occam, as prejudicial to the interests of the Church. His party in consequence, flourished the more. What is more natural than

to love and pursue the forbidden?

Science. When, as here, the measure of probability is essentially theological, if scientific theories are discussed, they will be colored with religious thought. The scientist,

"Transported

And rapt in secret studies, —

is imagined to know more than the human faculties can acquire. The wise are magicians; and the enlightened, heretics.

Astrology-fortune-telling by the aspect of the heavens and the influence of the stars- was the favorite superstition of the East and West. Great circumspection was necessary; neglect of it was fatal. In 1327, Asculanus, having performed some experiments that seemed miraculous to the vulgar, and having also offended many by some predictions said to have been fulfilled, was supposed to deal with infernal spirits, and was committed to the flames by the inquisitors of Florence.

Alchemy was generally confined to the mystery which all sought to penetrate, the transmutation of metals into gold. Edward III, not less credulous than his grandfather, issued an order in the following terms:

'Know all men that we have been assured that John of Rous and Master William of Dalby know how to make silver by the art of alchemy; that they have made it in former times, and still continue to make it; and, considering that these men, by their art, and by making the precious metal, may be profitable to us and to our kingdom, we have commanded our well beloved Thomas Cary to apprehend the aforesaid John and William, wherever they can be found, within liberties or without, and bring them to us, together with all the instruments of their art, under safe and sure custody.'

The art of medicine was still in the greater part a compound of superstition and quackery. Relics, shrines, and miracle-cures were a source of boundless profit to ecclesiastics. It forms an