These may be reduced to three: 1. their erection was prompted by religion and charity; 2. they were generally free, and all could frequent them without expense; and, 3. without excluding mere human learning, they yet attached far greater importance to sacred studies. We have recognized many of these features in the facts already alleged; but some additional illustrations may not be wholly useless or devoid of interest.

1. Nothing is more certain, than that religion presided over the erection of those splendid institutions of learning. No other motive could have caused the raising up of so many brilliant literary establishments. Whoever has studied the history of those ages of faith, must have observed, that religion and divine charity were then the most powerful stimulants to exertion. All other motives were comparatively powerless. To rear institutions, where the poor- the favorite members of Jesus Christmight imbibe literature hallowed by religion; to cause souls redeemed by the blood of Christ to be trained to virtue and learning;- - this was then deemed the noblest use to which money could be applied. The founders of those Schools did not court human applause; it was glory enough for them, if in the eyes of heaven "they could shine like stars forever;" or if, in consideration of their pious bequests for education, God would vouchsafe in His mercy to blot out their sins. "We wish," says St. Benedict, the founder of the illustrious order which bears his name, "to institute a School for the service of the Lord, and we hope that we have not placed anything sharp or painful in this institution.'

Beraudiere, bishop of Perigueaux, founded a seminary for poor scholars in his own city, and stated in dying, that he had left to posterity his book, his church rebuilt, and this seminary for the poor. "May gracious heaven grant," he adds, "that posterity may receive great utility; and may God vouchsafe pardon for my past sins! "2

The child's advancement in virtue was then the greatest object of the parent's solicitude. Eginhard writes to his son, who was at the School of Fulda: "But above all, learn to imitate those good morals in which he (your teacher) excels; for grammar and rhetoric and all other studies of liberal arts are vain, and greatly injurious to the servants of God, unless by the divine grace they know how to be subject to virtue; for 'science puffeth up, but charity edifieth.' I would rather see you dead than abounding in vice." St. Anselm of Canterbury, employed similar language, in writing to his nephew Anselm. The school rooms of the monasteries at Rome and Bologna, were sanctuaries of piety; the student always beheld in them an image of that immaculate Virgin, who was ever the patroness of Christian scholars. In fine, not to multiply facts, whoever will study the history of those Schools, will not fail to remark that religion always prompted their erection, and presided over their destinies. Every exercise was commenced and terminated by prayer."

1 Præf ad Regulam-in fine.

3 St. Anselmi Opp. Lib. 4, Epist. 31.

2 Gouget. xvi. 13. apud Digby, Vol. 2, p. 134.

4 For these beautiful prayers recited before and after the scholastic exercises, see Digby Vol. ii, pp. 123 and 135.

2. Instruction in most of those Schools was wholly gratuitous. This was particularly true of the seminaries of Rome, and of almost all the cathedral, parochial, and monastic Schools, erected by order of ecclesiastical councils. This beautiful feature in education during the middle ages was a necessary consequence of the spirit of Christian charity, which then prevailed, and which, as we have just seen, was the main spring of literary exertion. Teachers in those days wished for no emoluments, but the smiling approval of God! Bishops, kings, and emperors left immense legacies for the gratuitous education of the poor. Leopold, Arch-duke of Austria, employed his wealth in founding numerous seminaries of learning, which he committed to the charge of pious and learned monks. Pope Urban V. supported more than a thousand students at different academies, supplying them also with books. The celibacy of the clergy did more for the erection of Schools for the poor, than perhaps anything else. Clergymen whose income exceeded their expenses, felt bound by the spirit, if not by the letter of the canon law, to appropriate the surplus to charitable purposes, among which the principal was the founding of hospitals and Schools. The forty-four Colleges attached to the University of Paris were most of them founded by clergymen, prompted thereto by religious and charitable motives.

The greatest boast of this age is the founding of common and free Schools. Catholicity was the real foundress of such institutions. Money is now necessary for every thing-it is the great, almost the only motive of action. Teachers will not labor without remuneration. Free Schools cannot be established now, unless the community be heavily taxed for their support. It was not so in the good old Catholic times. Christian charity was a coin which then circulated freely, supplying the place of money. Alas! Charity hath grown cold! Even the poor must now be supported by taxation! Alas! for the spirit of the ages of faith! 3. Many Protestant writers have asserted, that nothing but scholastic philosophy and theology was taught in the Schools and Universities of the middle ages. No assertion could be more unfounded. True, those sciences which spoke of heavenly things and of God, were more warmly cherished; but mere human learning was not neglected. The great Alcuin wrote to Charlemagne, from Tours, where he was teaching: "According to your exhortations and good desire, I apply myself to minister to some, under the roof of St. Martin, the honey of the holy scriptures. Others I endeavor to inebriate with the old wine of ancient learning; others I begin to nourish with the apples of grammatical subtlety. Some I try to illuminate in the science of the stars, as if of the painted canopy of some great house; I am made many things to many persons, that I may edify as many as possible, to the advantage of the holy Church of God, and to the honor of our imperial kingdom." Roger Bacon applied successfully to the study of the practical sciences; and in the thirteenth century he made many brilliant discoveries, which would do honor to this age. Albertus Magnus wrote an extensive treatise on natural history, in which he

embodied all that was valuable in the works of Aristotle and Pliny, adding many discoveries of his own. These are a few out of a hundred examples that might be alleged, to prove that human science was cultivated in the "Dark" ages. In all the Universities, mathematics and physics were taught, as well as metaphysics and theology.

How advantageously do not the ancient Catholic Universities compare with those of later date and of Protestant origin! Look, for example, at the boasted Universities of Germany. Drinking, smoking, duelling, and secret associations are there the order of the day. Morality is banished from them, and the ardor of study is greatly abated.'

1 See an able article on this subject in the North American Review for April, 1842,-a Review of a late work on the German Universities.

VII. INFLUENCE OF CATHOLICITY ON CIVIL

LIBERTY.

Terms defined-What is liberty?-Which is the best form of government?-Direct and indirect inno ence-Tendency of Christian teaching-Division of the subject-Theoretical view-Equalizing the social condition-Form of Church government-A happy blending of different elements The elective principle-Deliberative assemblies-Authority of the Pope-Practical influence of the Church-In the early ages-In the middle ages-Rescuing Europe from barbarism-Means employed for humanizing society-Two Protestant testimonies-Slavery and the serf system-Struggle between the Cross and the Crescent - The Crusades-Their influence on the social condition-The Free Cities-In Spain-In Germany-And in Italy-Lombard League-Italian Republics-Guelphs and Ghibellines-The deposing power-Republics of San Marino and Andorra-The monastic institute Teaching of medieval theologians-Magna Charta-William Wallace. Robert Bruce, and William Tell-Influence of the reformation on liberty-In Germany-And in England-Catholic patriots during the American revolution-Conclusion.

THIS subject should be approached with clear ideas on its nature, as well as with certain fixed principles to guide us in our investigation. These principles are contained in the title placed above, as in a germ, and we cannot, perhaps, better introduce this paper, than by a brief definition of the words of which it is composed.

Liberty, especially with its qualification, civil, is not an absolute, but a relative term. It has no fixed nor determinate meaning, whether we regard its etymology or its general acceptation among mankind. It implies, in general, some exemption from external restraint; but the amount of this exemption, as well as the quantum of restraint compatible with liberty, can be determined by no absolute standard. What is called liberty in one age, and under one set of circumstances, would be called slavery in another, and in a new order of things. Two extreme cases are, however, excluded by the meaning generally attached to the term: that of complete external restraint, which we call slavery, and that of no restraint whatever, either on person or action; which latter, though it may be thought to exist in the untrammeled savage of the forest, never has existed de facto, and in the nature of things never can exist, in any well organized civil society. Between these two extremes, the meaning of the term varies according to times, persons, and circumstances.

The very idea of government implies some restraint on individual liberty. The compact, express or implied, "between the governor and the governed, necessarily supposes some sacrifice of personal freedom on the part of the latter for the general good of the body politic. The extent of this sacrifice must be determined by the character of the people to be governed, and by reflection on the great end of all civil governments, which is to secure to the governed, the possession of life, honor and property. And without ven

turing to pronounce definitely on a question, which has been so long agitated among the most civilized nations of the earth, we may safely say, that the form of government, which combines the proper security of these great objects with the greatest amount of personal freedom, is the best in theory as well as in practice. In accordance with this principle, there can be no doubt, that, whenever the character of the people can bear it, a well regulated democracy is preferable to all other forms of government. But while a predilection for our own cherished institutions is thus founded on reasoning from first principles, the liberal mind will not be led into the vulgar error of condemning too harshly every other form of civil polity. Each may be good in its place, and in reference to the people for whom it is appointed. Governments, like garments, must suit the persons for whom they are designed.

When we speak of the influence of Catholicity on civil liberty, we are not to be understood as implying that this influence is always direct, or that it is a primary object of our holy religion. Christ did not come to decide the complicated problems of human governments; His mission had a higher, a holier purpose. He came not to pronounce on the political differences existing among mankind, but to establish a divine system, -a kingdom not of this world, into which all were admissible, no matter under what form of government Providence might have cast their lot. One cannot be a good Christian without being a good citizen; and all that our blessed Saviour is recorded to have said on this subject, is that remarkable answer of his to the Scribes and Pharisees: "Render, therefore, unto Cæsar the things that are Cæsar's, and unto God the things that are God's."

But if Christianity was not intended to have a direct, it at least has had a most powerful indirect influence on civil governments. By elevating and ennobling man's nature,-- by dissipating the errors of his mind, and expanding the affections of his heart, it has necessarily promoted even his earthly happiness, and improved his social condition. By slow, but steady degrees, it has broken the fetters of the slave and of the captive, and prepared mankind for full and perfect liberty. The emancipation of the mind and heart from the slavery of error and sin, was a primary object of the Christian religion, expressed in those words of Christ: "You shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." This higher freedom once secured, man was naturally led to break other bonds. Christianity thus threw upon earthly things a light reflected from heaven, and pointed triumphantly to the great "City of God," as more than realizing all the brightest visions of human freedom and happiness!

The influence of Catholicity on civil liberty may be viewed in a twofold light: the one theoretical, the other practical. The former is that of her doctrines and government; the latter, that of her external action on society. We will endeavor to show that, under both aspects, this influence has been favorable to the development of free principles, and to the progress of civil liberty.

1 St, Matt. xxii.

2 St. John viii, 32.