made great advances in freedom, influence, and consideration. The right to criticise public

General progress of free discussion in the press.

2

affairs, to question the acts of the government, and the proceedings of the legislature, had been established. Ministers had been taught, by the constant failure of prosecutions,' to trust to public opinion for the vindication of their measures, rather than to the errors of the law for the silencing of libellers. Wilkes and Junius had at once stimulated the activity of the press, and the popular interest in public affairs. Reporters and printers having overcome the resistance of Parliament to the publication of debates, the press was brought into closer relations with the state. Its functions were elevated, and its responsibilities increased. Statesmen now had audience of the people. They could justify their own acts to the world. The falsehoods and misrepresentations of the press were exposed. Rulers and their critics were brought face to face, before the tribunal of public opinion. The sphere of the press was widely extended. Not writers only, but the first minds of the age,—men ablest in council and debate, were daily contributing to the instruc-. tion of their countrymen. Newspapers promptly met the new requirements of their position. Several were established during this period, whose high reputation and influence have survived to our own time; and by fullness and rapidity of intelligence,

3

1 On the 27th Nov., 1770, the Attorney-General De Grey 'declared solemnly that he had hardly been able to bring a single offender to justice.'-Parl. Hist., xvi. 1138.

2 Supra, p. 33, et seq.

Viz., The Morning Chronicle, 1769 (extinct in 1862); The Morning Post, 1772; The Morning Herald, 1780 (extinct in 1869);

frequency of publication, and literary ability, proved themselves worthy of their honourable mission to instruct the people.

Nor is it unworthy of remark that art had come to the aid of letters, in political contro- Caricatures. versy. Since the days of Walpole, caricatures had occasionally pourtrayed ministers in grotesque forms, and with comic incidents: but during this period, caricaturists had begun to exercise no little influence upon popular feeling. The broad humour and bold pencil of Gillray had contributed to foment the excitement against Mr. Fox and Lord North; and this skilful limner elevated caricature to the rank of a new art. The people were familiarised with the persons and characters of public men crowds gathered round the printsellers' windows; and as they passed on, laughing goodhumouredly, felt little awe or reverence for rulers whom the caricaturist had made ridiculous. The press had found a powerful ally, which, first used in the interests of party, became a further element of popular force.1

and asso

Meanwhile, other means had been devised,-more powerful than the press,-for directing Public public opinion, and exercising influence meetings over the government and the legislature. ciations. Public meetings had been assembled, political associations organised, and agitation' as it has since

The Times, founded in 1788, holds an undisputed position as the first newspaper in the world.-Hunt's Fourth Estate, ii. 99–189.

Wright's England under the House of Hanover, i. 136, 403; ii. 74-83, &c.; Twiss's Life of Eldon, i. 162; Lord Stanhope's Life of Pitt, i. 239.

been termed,-reduced to a system. In all ages and countries, and under every form of government, the people have been accustomed, in periods of excitement, to exercise a direct influence over their rulers. Sometimes by tumults and rebellions, sometimes by clamours and discontent, they have made known their grievances, and struggled for redress. In England, popular feelings had too often exploded in civil wars and revolutions; and, in more settled times, the people had successfully overborne the government and the legislature. No minister, however powerful, could be wholly deaf to their clamours. In 1733, Sir Robert Walpole had been forced to withdraw his excise scheme.2 In 1754, Parliament had been compelled to repeal a recent act of just toleration, in deference to popular prejudices.3

In the beginning of this reign, the populace had combined with the press in hooting Lord Bute out of the king's service; and for many years afterwards popular excitement was kept alive by the ill-advised measures of the Court and Parliament. It was a period of discontent and turbulence.

The Silkweavers'

riots, 1765.

In 1765, the Spitalfields' silk-weavers, exasperated by the rejection of a bill for the protection of their trade by the House of Lords, paraded in front of St. James' Palace with black flags, surrounded the Houses of Parliament at Westminster, and questioned the peers as they

May 15th.

Pour la populace, ce n'est jamais par envie d'attaquer qu'elle se soulève, mais par impatience de souffrir.'-Mem. de Sully, i. 133. 2 Parl. Hist., viii. 1306; ix. 7; Coxe's Walpole, i. 372; Lord Hervey's Mem., i. 185, et seq.

3 Naturalisation of Jews, 1754.

came out, concerning their votes. They assailed the Duke of Bedford, at whose instance the bill had been thrown out; and having been dispersed by cavalry in Palace Yard, they proceeded to attack May 17th. Bedford House, whence they were repulsed by the guards. It was an irregular and riotous attempt to overawe the deliberations of Parliament. It was tumult of the old type, opposed alike to law and rational liberty: but it was not the less successful. Encouraged by the master manufacturers, and exerted in a cause then in high favour with statesmen, it was allowed to prevail. Lord Halifax promised to satisfy the weavers; 2 and in the next year, to their great joy, a bill was passed restraining the importation of foreign silks.3

excitement,

But the general discontents of the time shortly developed other popular demonstrations Popular far more formidable, which were destined 1768. to form a new era in constitutional government. In 1768, the excitement of the populace in the cause of Wilkes, led to riots and a conflict with the military. But the tumultuous violence of mobs was succeeded by a deeper and more constitutional agitation. The violation of the rights of the electors of Middlesex by the Commons, united, in support of Wilkes, the first statesmen of the time, the parliamentary opposition, the wronged electors, the

1 Ann. Reg., 1765, p. 41; Grenville Papers, iii. 168-172; Walp. Mem., ii. 155, et seq.; Rockingham Mem., i. 200, 207; Adolphus' Hist., i. 177; Lord Mahon's Hist., v. 152.

2 He wrote to Lord Hillsborough to assure the master-weavers that the bill should pass both Houses.-Rockingham Mem., i. 200-207.

36 Geo. III. c. 28.

4

* Supra, p. 13.

magistrates and citizens of London, a large body of the middle classes, the press, and the populace. Enthusiastic meetings of freeholders were

Public meetings

and associations, 1768-70.

assembled to support their champion, with whom the freeholders of other counties made common cause. The throne was approached by addresses and remonstrances. Junius thundered forth his fearful invectives. Political agitation was rife in various forms : but its most memorable feature was that of public meetings, which at this period began to take their place among the institutions of the country. No less than seventeen counties held meetings to support the electors of Middlesex. Never had so general a demonstration of public sentiment been made, in such a form. It was a new phase in the development of public opinion. This movement was succeeded by the formation of a 'society for supporting the bill of rights.'

80.

2

Ten years later, public meetings assumed more Public meet- importance and a wider organisation. The ings, 1779freeholders of Yorkshire and twenty-three other counties, and the inhabitants of many cities, were assembled, by their sheriffs and chief magistrates, to discuss economical and parliamentary reform. These meetings were attended by the leading men of each neighbourhood; and speeches were

1 Ann. Reg., 1770, p. 58, 60. On the 31st October, 1770, a large meeting of the electors of Westminster was held in Westminster Hall, when Mr. Wilkes counselled them to instruct their members to impeach Lord North.-Adolphus' Hist., i. 451; Ann. Reg., 1770, p. 159; Chron., 206; Lord Rockingham's Mem., ii. 93; Cooke's Hist. of Party, iii. 187.

2 Ann. Reg., 1770, p. 58.