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much men are indebted for success in after life to the education of their earlier years. This truism has been very apparent in the case both of Godefroi and of Eugene Cavaignac. On the exile of her husband, their mother, Madame Cavaignac, settled herself in Paris, and devoted her whole time to superintending, under the advice of her husband, the education of her

sons.

Eugene was destined by his parents for a military life, and after passing a severe examination, on October 1st, 1820, was admitted, when eighteen years old, as a pupil in the Ecole Polytechnique. He remained two years at the academy, and after going through the usual course of mathematical and theoretical military studies, was sent to the practical school at Metz, where he was entered in the 2nd Regiment of Engineers. After remaining at Metz two years, and making himself thoroughly acquainted with the practical duties of an engineer and of an artilleryman, Eugene received his commission, as second lieutenant, on 1st October, 1826, and of first lieutenant on the 12th January, 1827. At the period when Eugene entered the army, liberal opinions were far from being acceptable to the Bourbon dynasty. He did not, however, conceal the republican principles he had been taught by his father. By a strict performance of his military duties, by a rigid observance of discipline, and by the energy he displayed in the various professional matters entrusted to his charge, Lieutenant Cavaignac gained the respect and esteem of his superior officers. He received his commission as second captain on 1st October, 1827.

France and England were at this time engaged in the settlement of the affairs of Greece. Captain Cavaignac requested to be employed in the expedition sent by France to co-operate with England in suppressing the barbarities committed by the Turks in that country. After the battle of Navarino had decided the fate of Greece, Captain Cavaignac was employed as an engineer in taking possession of some fortresses which it was thought necessary to secure, in order to complete the independence of the new kingdom of Greece. It was in this classic land that Captain Cavaignac

had first an opportunity of seeing real war, and of carrying into practice the knowledge he had acquired at Metz. On the return of the army to France, in the early part of the year 1830, Captain Cavaignac was stationed at Arras, and received a commission as full captain. Charles X. at this time reigned in France. It had long been evident to every one at all acquainted with the feelings of the French, that the unconstitutional system of government pursued by Charles X. must lead to the downfall of his dynasty. The antiquated prejudices of the king, added to his total disregard of the warnings of history-the undue influence exercised over his weak mind by the priests and the emigrés-the absurd preference shown by him in his appointments to heraldic rank over personal merit-determined a vast majority of the middle classes to take advantage of the first opportunity to expel him from a throne which he was so unfitted in this enlightened age to fill. When, therefore, in July, 1830, Charles X. and the Prince Polignac published the famous ordonnances by which, in violation of the charter, a newly-elected chamber of deputies was dissolved, by which the liberty of the press was abolished, and by which the law of election was illegally altered, the citi zens of Paris armed themselves in defence of their rights. M. Thiers, and other editors of the Parisian journals, published a counter proclamation, stating their intentions to resist these illegal proceedings. France, as is well known, responded to the appeal of the journalists, and the middle classes compelled Charles X. to quit the throne of France. While the result of the struggle in Paris was as yet unknown in the provinces, the larger towns of France rose in favour of liberty. At Arras, the editor of the Propagateur, M. Frédéric de George, published his journal in spite of the attempts of the royalists to repress it. A large portion of the troops in garrison at Arras determined to march to the assistance of the liberals in Paris. Captain Cavaignac and the men in his company in the 2nd Regiment of Engineers, were among the foremost to range themselves on the side of the people, and to proclaim their attachment to liberty. The known republican principles of Captain Cavaignac, and his relationship to Gode

froi Cavaignac, at that time the popular editor of the Tribune, a democratical newspaper, pointed out that officer as a fit person to command the volunteers from Arras; he was accordingly appointed their leader. The arrangements made in Paris, by which Louis Philippe became King of the French, rendered the advance of Captain Cavaignac's party to Paris unnecessary. The men in his company, however, had the satisfaction of ascertaining that their captain, though a strict disciplinarian, was prepared to defend with his sword the rights of a Frenchman, should circumstances require him to act.

On the evening before the final arrangements were made, as to the government that was to be adopted in France, his brother Godefroi and other young republicans, at the request of Louis Philippe, had an interview with the latter, at his house in the Palais Royal. After a lengthened conversation on the state of affairs, Louis Philippe stated his own opinion to be, that a republic was unsuited to France in her present situation. He then attacked the principles of the leaders of the National Convention in for

mer times. "You forget, sir," said Godefroi, sternly, "that my father was a member of that body." "And mine, too," sir, returned the crafty prince, " and I never knew a more respectable man." Godefroi and his republican friends, who had been engaged during three days at the barricades, in fighting for the cause of the people, took leave of Louis Philippe, much dissatisfied with the various opinions the future monarch expressed. A few days later, Louis Philippe was declared King of the French. Godefroi and Eugene Cavaignac were among the earliest to discover, and to avow in public, how little the friends of good government had in reality gained by the revolution of July.

Godefroi had at this time earned a well-merited reputation by his various contributions to the Tribune, the Reform and the National newspapers. Enthusiastic in his attachment to republican principles, his articles showed great originality of thought, an intimate acquaintance with the best writers on political subjects, and, above all, a love of order, of justice,

and of enlightened liberty. With the impetuous spirit of youth, however, he was not content to enforce his political opinions merely with his pen, but held himself in readiness to use force in resisting the new government, should his duty to his country require him so to do. With this view, he and other ardent republicans enlisted themselves in the artillery of the National Guard of Paris, in order that that powerful weapon of destruction might be on the side of the people, in case their liberties should be attacked by the ministry in power. A knowledge that Godefroi Cavaignac and his republican friends had taken this step, gave great umbrage to Louis Philippe. The king unwisely took the opportunity of some disturbances which occurred on the occasion of the trial of the ex-Minis ters of Charles X., to bring Godefroi and other republicans to trial, on pretence of their having been engaged in an attempted insurrection, but in reality for their attachment to the cause of republicanism. This trial, which caused great excitement in France, ended in a verdict of not guilty. Various political clubs were now formed in all parts of the country, with the view of opposing the policy of Casimir Perrier (the unpopular minister of Louis Philippe), and of putting down the party of reaction. A national association was formed by M. Dornez, at Metz, in 1831, ostensibly with the view of preventing the return of the elder branch of the Bourbons to France, but in reality to check the proceedings of Louis Philippe. Captain Cavaignac was a menber of this association. The govern ment dismissed from public employ ment all members of these clubs, and placed on temporary half-pay all military officers who were connected with them. He, consequently, was obliged to retire from active service for a short time. During this temporary leisure, he was able to make himself acquainted with the plans of his brother Godefroi and of the other leading liberals. Captain Cavaignac, however, soon became tired of a life of inaction in Paris, and at length obtained his reinstatement in active military ser

vice.

Europe at this time was in profound peace, and the only field of military distinction t offered itself to French

officers was Algeria. Captain Cavaignac accordingly left France, to serve his country in Africa. Since the capture of the town of Algiers by Marshal Bourmont, in 1830, the French had made but little progress in the conquest of Algeria. Bourmont, Clauzel, Berthezene, and Rovigo, were engaged with varied success for three years, in this difficult undertaking; but the amount of force placed at their disposal by the French government, was totally inadequate to enable them to cope against the strenuous and brave resistance that the Arabs and Kabyles opposed to their Christian invaders. When Captain Cavaignac landed, the possessions of France were as follows:-In the district of Algiers, she possessed only the town of Algiers and its suburbs. The suzereignty of France was also acknowledged in the narrow slip of coast bounded by the Arrach, the Metidja, Mazafran, and the Mediterranean. Beyond these confined limits, the Arabs and the mountain tribes of the Kabyles held undisputed sway. In the province of Constantine, France merely possessed the small town of Bona, on the sea-coast; and even there their possessions did not extend beyond the range of the cannon on the ramparts. On the west, in the province of Oran, France possessed the town of Oran, with the fortress of Mers-elKebir. She was also in alliance with the Turks, in Mostaghanem, and with the Kouloughis, in the Mechouar, or citadel of Tlemçen. The Hadars, however, who possessed the town itself of Tlemçen, were hostile to France. Such were the small results of the blood and treasure which the French had spent in Algeria during three years. In 1833, the government of Louis Philippe determined to complete the conquest of the whole of Algeria, -a country extending in length, from east to west, upwards of seven hundred miles along the shores of northern Africa, and stretching in width nearly a hundred and fifty miles from the Mediterranean, towards the desert. From 1833 to the present time, the power and influence of the French in Algeria has steadily increased; and that country-should no unfore seen event occur-may now (1848) be said to be completely under the dominion of France. Great victories and great reverses have marked the

progress of the French armies during the last fourteen years. The wars in Algeria have produced a number of commanders whose names are now illustrious in the military annals of France. Clauzel, Damremont, Vallee, Desmichels, Trezel, Lamorriciere, Bugeaud, Bedeau, Negrier, Duvivier, Chargarnier, and Cavaignac, have earned no small fame from the battles they fought, and the skill with which they baffled their brave and enterprising opponents. It is a somewhat remarkable fact, that the year in which Eugene Cavaignac commenced his African campaigns was also that in which Abd-el-Kader, the son of Mei-edDin, an Arabian marabout, first became known as the energetic opponent of the French invaders. The fact that the Emir Abd-el-Kader was able for many years to baille the power of France, and occasionally even to wrest a victory from the ablest of her generals, is no slight proof of the skill and of the enterprise with which this great and extraordinary chieftain endeavoured to preserve the liberty of the native tribes. Eugene Cavaignac commenced his military life in Algeria at Oran, under the command of General Desmichels. Shortly after his arrival there, Desmichels, who was completely blocked up by the Arabs in the town of Oran, determined, in order to assist his military defences, to construct a block-house and build a redoubt on the highest point of the ridge which commands the level ground near Oran. Captain Cavaignac, as an engineer, was entrusted with the construction of these works. Abd-el-Kader, who was encamped within a league from the walls of Oran, vigorously opposed this proceeding. A desperate battle, on June 4th, 1833, took place, from sunrise to sunset, between the French and the Arab forces. Captain Cavaignac, with great coolness, though exposed to the hottest of the enemy's fire, succeeded in erecting the military works entrusted to him. For his conduct on this occasion, he was mentioned in a general order by General Desmichels, and shortly afterwards received the cross of the Legion of Honour. He was next employed in improving the fortifications of Oran, and in constructing a military road from the town to the fortress of Mersel-Kebir. A short but hollow truce was established between Abd-el-Kader

and the French, in February, 1834. Abd-el-Kader, however, shortly after this, became master of the whole of the province of Oran, and with great audacity seized Médéah, in the province of Algiers. General Trézel marched against the victorious emir. The French and Arab forces met on the banks of the Macta, about thirty miles to the east of Oran. The French army was defeated; and, in spite of the gallantry of the French, Abd-elKader obtained a complete victory. With a burning desire to retrieve this great reverse, the French government instantly despatched Marshal Clauzel to again take the command of the troops in Algeria. On his arrival in Africa, the marshal at once determined to push forward to Mascara, an inland town in the province of Oran, where Abd-el-Kader had established his headquarters. Captain Cavaignac was one of this expedition. Ten thousand men, under the command of Clauzel in person, set forward on the 26th of November, 1835, to avenge the former defeat of the French army.

The French defeated the Arabs on the banks of the Habra, though not without heavy loss. Cavaignac distinguished himself in this action, by the side of General Oudinot, who was severely wounded. When the French army arrived at Mascara, they found that Abd-el-Kader, in pursuance of his usual policy, had abandoned the town, and had retired to Tlemçen, where he was sure of being supported by the Hadars. Clauzel pushed forward with great vigour to Tlemçen ; and on 13th January, 1836, drove the Hadars out of the town, and took possession of the place. On leaving Tlemçen, Clauzel, having avenged the honour of the French arms, determined to leave a small garrison of 500 volunteers, under the command of Captain Cavaignac, in the Mechouar, or citadel of Tlemçen. This was a most dangerous post, placed near the western extremity of Algeria, towards the frontiers of Morocco, and surrounded by fanatical and warlike tribes. Cavaignac, and the handful of men under his command, were thrown entirely on their own resources. Clauzel had intended, in order to keep up a communication between Tlemcen and Oran, to establish a fortified post on the banks of the Tafna, about halfway between these two places; but

although the French succeeded, after severe fighting, in posting 3,000 men and eight pieces of cannon on the banks of this river, they were unable, after the departure of Clauzel. to approach the walls of Tlemçen, which were strictly blockaded by the forces of Abd-el-Kader. Captain Cavaignac was thus unable to receive stores from his own countrymen; but having succeeded in obtaining the confidence of the Koloughis, managed to procure provisions for his men, and was able to establish barracks and an hospital in the Mechouar. He was exposed, however, to much harassing warfare, as the Arabs, with numerous forces, made constant attacks on the Mechouar; and it was not until Marshal Bugeaud gained the victory of the Sikkak, that Captain Cavaignac was relieved from the peril of his position. By the treaty of the Tafna, in May, 1837, between Bu geaud and Abd-el-Kader (by which Tlemçen, in addition to other territories was given up to Abd-el-Kader), Captain Cavaignac, and the men under his command, evacuated the post which they had so long and so bravely defended. As a reward for his gallant services, he received a commission as Chef de Bataillon in the regiment of Zouaves. The privations and fatigues Major Cavaignac had undergone, obliged him now to return to France, for a short time, to recruit his health. When in garrison at Tlemçen, he had wisely occupied his time in making himself master of the Arabic language, and in studying the habits, and manners, and laws of the inhabitants of Algeria. On his return to Paris, he published the results of his inquiries in a work entitled "De la Regence d' Alger," which excited much attention at that time, and is well worthy of being read by all who wish to become well acquainted with the affairs of Algeria.

When the war between Abd-elKader and the French broke out afresh, in breach of the treaty of the Tafna, Major Cavaignac again returned to Algeria. He was appointed, on his arrival, to the command of the second battalion of African Light Infantry, and was put in charge of Cherchel, a town on the sea-coast, which had been taken by Marshal Vallee from the Arabs. The Arabs and Kabyles made desperate efforts to recover the place, during twelve suc

cessive days. Major Cavaignac, however, repulsed their attacks, and preserved to the French the town, which was entrusted to his command. In one of these skirmishes, he was wounded in the thigh. On the 21st of June, 1840, he received his commission as lieutenant-colonel of the regiment of Zouaves. This regiment had been commanded by Lamorriciere, and had earned great honour at the capture of the town of Constantine. Under Cavaignac, the Zouaves preserved the high reputation they had gained under their former commander. On the 3d of May, 1841, Lieutenant-Colonel Cavaignac and the regiment of Zouaves accompanied General Changarnier in an expedition to Milianah, when, with a small force, they succeeded in reprovisioning that town. Cavaignac commanded the rear-guard, and did good service in repulsing the attack of the mountain tribes. He had a horse killed under him, and was wounded in the foot. For his conduct on this occasion he was appointed, on the 11th of August, 1844, colonel of the Zouaves, the regiment in which he had so gallantly distinguished himself. During 1841 and 1842, he was constantly engaged at the head of his intrepid Zouaves, in battling with the Arabs and Kabyles, who had risen in arms to support the authority of Abd-el-Kader. Colonel Cavaignac particularly distinguished himself, on the 20th of September, 1842, in repulsing an attack of the Kabyles in the defiles of Oued-Fodda. The difficulties which the French had, up to this time, encountered, in gaining any firm or lasting footing in the territory of Algeria, beyond the walls of the fortified towns, determined them, in 1843, by the advice of Gen. Lamorriciere, to establish detached military posts in various parts of the country, with the view of holding the natives in check, and of affording places from which moveable columns of French soldiers might traverse the country in every direction. With this view, the French government established posts at Ténès, Es-Snam, Tenit-el-Kad, and at Tiaret. Colonel Cavaignac was ordered to establish the post of Es-Snam, in the western part of the province of Algiers. At the head of a force of 2,000 men, he speedily reduced the hostile tribes in that district, and obtained the submission of the neigh

bouring Kabyles. By the end of 1844, the barren and desolate spot of Es-Snam was converted into the rising and flourishing town of Orleansville, and became the capital of a subdivision of the province of Algiers of the same name. For these services, Colonel Cavaignac was, on the 16th of September, 1844, promoted to the rank of maréchal-de-camp, and to the command of the Tlemçen sub-district. The command of the Tlemçen district was then, and is still, in consequence of its proximity to Morocco, one of the most difficult in Algeria. When he arrived at the Tlemcen district, the inhabitants were enthusiastically attached to the cause of Abd-el-Kader; and the warlike tribes in that neighbourhood (only partially subdued) yielded but an unwilling obedience to the French officers. Major-General Cavaignac, by his firmness in command, enforced the full authority of France in this district, and succeeded in establishing a steady and regular government. In March, 1845, at the head of a party of the Chasseurs d'Afrique, he was present at an interview which took place between the envoys of France and Morocco, to settle the western frontier of Algeria. At the end of 1845, Abd-el-Kader, undaunted by the result of the battle of Isly in the previous year, once more entered the province of Oran, and made a final, though fruitless effort to chase the French from the soil of Algeria. The situation of Cavaignac was then most critical, and it required great firmness and resolution to maintain his position; the whole of the Arabs in the province of Oran rose in arms to support the pretensions of the great emir; and by a sudden and unexpected attack, had cut to pieces a battalion of the French army. Cavaignac, with undaunted resolu tion contrived, however, to make head against this dangerous insurrection. Placing himself in command of a column of 1500 men, he in the first place succeeded in twice defeating the Traras, after two very warm engagements, and then, a few days later, relieved the village of Nedroma, which was besieged by Abd-el-Kader; he then, by a rapid march through a country with a hostile population, effected a junction with General Lamorriciere on the summit of the Bab-Thaza. His efforts, united with those of his gal

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