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fendant's character, unless the defendant enable him to do so by calling witnesses in support of it,—and even then the prosecutor cannot examine into particular facts, the general character of the defendant not being put in issue, but coming in collaterally." Buller's Nisi Prius, 296.

"But it is not competent for the government to give in proof the bad character of the defendant, unless he first opens that line of inquiry by evidence of good character." Com. v. Webster, 5 Cush. 325.

It will be seen that these authorities support not only the first proposition above stated, but also the others.

I also cite the following authorities in support of the other propositions, which, it seems to me, need no further support:

to

"It is here, however, that the fundamental distinction begins; for while particular acts may be proved to show malice or scienter, it is inadmissible either in this or any prove, other way, that the defendant had a tendency to the crime charged. Thus, in England, it has been held that on the trial of a person charged with an unnatural crime, it was not permitted to prove that the defendant had admitted that he had a tendency to such practices; and so, on an indictment against an overseer on a plantation for the murder of a slave, evidence as to the prisoner's general habits as to punishing other slaves is not admissible for the prosecution." 1 Wharton's Am. Crim. Law, § 640, and cases cited.

"So, proof of a distinct murder, committed by the defendant at a different time, or of some other felony or transaction committed upon or against a different person and at a different time, in which the defendant participated, cannot be admitted until proof has been given establishing or tending to establish the offence with which he is charged, and showing some connection between the different transactions, or such facts or circumstances as will warrant a presumption that the latter grew out of, and was to some extent induced by, some circumstances connected with the former; in which case such circumstances connected with the former as are calculated to show the quo animo or motive by which the prisoner was actuated or influenced in regard to the subsequent transaction are competent and legitimate testimony." 1 Wharton's Am. Crim. Law, sec. 647, and cases cited.

In Regina v. Oddy, 4 Eng. L. & E. 572, it was held that "On an indictment for feloniously receiving goods, knowing them to have been stolen, it is not competent for the prosecutor, in proof of guilty knowledge of the prisoner, to give in evidence that the prisoner, at a time previous to the receipt of the prosecutor's goods, had in his possession other goods of the same sort as those mentioned in the indictment, but belonging to a different owner, and that those goods had been stolen from such

owner.

Lord Campbell, C. J. I am of opinion that the evidence objected to was as admissible under the two first counts as it was under the third; for it was evidence which went to show that the prisoner was a very bad man, and a likely person to commit such offences as those charged in the indictment. But the law of England does not allow one crime to be proved in order to raise a probability that another crime has been committed by the perpetrator of the first. The evidence which was received in the case does not tend to show that the prisoner knew that these par

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ticular goods were stolen at the time that he received them. The rule which has prevailed in the case of indictments for uttering forged bank notes, of allowing evidence to be given of the uttering other forged notes to different persons, has gone great lengths, and I should be unwilling to see that rule applied generally in the administration of the criminal law. We are all of opinion that the evidence admitted in this case with regard to the scienter was improperly admitted, as it afforded no ground for any legitimate inference in respect of it. The conviction, therefore, must be quashed." Regina v. Oddy, 4 Eng. L. & Eq. 574.

In Schaffner v. Commonwealth, 72 Pa. St. (13 Am. Rep.) the prisoner was indicted for the murder of his wife by poison. There was evidence of his criminal intimacy with the wife of S., on whose life was an insurance, the proceeds of which, on his death, the defendant had tried to procure. Held, that evidence that S. died with the same symptoms as the defendant's wife, and had been attended by the defendant, was inadmissible.

Agnew, J., in his opinion, said: "It is a general rule, that a distinct crime, unconnected with that laid in the indictment, cannot be given in evidence against the prisoner. It is not proper to raise a presumption of guilt, on the ground that, having committed one crime, the depravity it exhibits makes it likely he would commit another. Logically, the commission of an independent offence is not proof, in itself, of the commission of another crime; yet it cannot be said to be without influence on the mind, for certainly, if one be shown to be guilty of another crime equally heinous, it will prompt a more ready belief that he might have committed the one with which he is charged. It therefore predisposes the mind of the juror to believe the prisoner guilty. To make one criminal act evidence of another, a connection between them must have existed in the mind of the actor, linking them together for some purpose he intended to accomplish; or, it must be necessary to identify the person of the actor by a connection which shows that he who committed the one must have done the other. Without this obvious connection, it is not only unjust to the prisoner to compel him to acquit himself of two offences instead of one, but it is detrimental to justice to burden a trial with multiplied issues that tend to confuse and mislead the jury. The most guilty criminal may be innocent of other offences charged against him, of which, if fairly tried, he might acquit himself. From the nature and prejudicial character of such evidence it is obvious it should not be received, unless the mind plainly perceives that the commission of the one tends, by a visible connection, to prove the commission of the other by the prisoner. If the evidence be so dubious that the judge does not clearly perceive the connection, the benefit of the doubt should be given to the prisoner, instead of suffering the minds of the jurors to be prejudiced by an independent fact carrying with it no proper evidence of the particular guilt." Schaffner v. Commonwealth, 13 Am. R. 651.

"It is, therefore, not competent for the prosecutor to give evidence of facts tending to prove another distinct offence for the purpose of raising an inference that the prisoner has committed the crime in question; nor is it competent to show that he has a tendency to commit the offence with which he is charged. Thus, on a prosecution for an infamous of

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fence, an admission by the prisoner that he had committed such an offence at another time was held to have been properly rejected. Rex v. Cole, cited in 1 Phillipps on Ev. 499 (8th ed.). State v. Renton, 15 N. H.

174.

The case of People v. Corbin, 56 N. Y. 363, well illustrates the practical application of this doctrine. The indictment was for forging the indorsement of one Van Amburgh on a promissory note. The defence was, that the prisoner was authorized to sign Van Amburgh's name. The prisoner had had such authority, but the prosecution attempted to show that the authority had been revoked. The question of the prisoner's guilt or innocence depended upon the inquiry whether the prisoner honestly believed that he was authorized to make the indorsement, or whether he knew that the authority had been revoked, and signed Van Amburgh's name with criminal intent. To establish such intent, evidence was offered tending to show his acknowledgment that he had made a similar unauthorized use of the name of his father-in-law on other notes. The county judge charged the jury as follows: "While the proof that he has been guilty of other forgeries is not evidence upon which you are to convict him of this forgery, yet the proof of other forgeries in connection with this, so far as they are in the case, you have the right to consider, in determining what his intentions were at the time this paper was made and uttered. So far, you may consider all that character of evidence in the case, in determining the intent at the time this paper was made and uttered." The judge also, in his charge, said: "The fact that the defendant is guilty of other forgeries is no evidence to prove that he committed this forgery. So far as his admissions to Ganoung concede the commission of forgeries against Ganoung, they may be considered by you in determining what was his intent at the time this note was made and uttered."

The verdict was set aside, and a new trial granted.

Rapallo, J., in delivering the judgment of the court, said: "The cases in which offences other than those charged in the indictment may be proved, for the purpose of showing guilty knowledge or intent, are very few; and this, we think, is not one of them. The fact that the prisoner made an unauthorized use of the name of Ganoung, if established, shows that he was morally capable of committing the same offence against Van Amburgh, but does not legitimately tend to show that he did so, or that he knew and understood that Van Amburgh's authority had been withdrawn, or that the signature in question had been made with criminal intent." People v. Corbin, 15 Am. R. 429.

The cases which have been cited by counsel for the government afford full illustration of the principles laid down in what has been said before. It is proper, however, to remark what seems to me to be a fallacious use of the word intent. Ordinarily, intent is, I think, an inference of law from acts proved. The maxim is, that every man must be taken to intend the natural consequences of his acts; and if he knowingly and voluntarily does an act which is in violation of law, he is held to have intended to violate the law. This I think would be true, whether he did or did not know that the act was unlawful. Thus, if a man should knowingly and voluntarily utter a forged bank note, or a counterfeit coin,

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he would be held guilty whether he did or did not know that the act was unlawful.

The cases cited by counsel for the government admit of being classified into several distinct groups.

In the first place is the class of cases in which other offences are shown for the purpose of proving guilty knowledge. To this class belong those cases in which, in the trial of indictments for uttering forged bank notes, or counterfeit coin, the proof of other offences of the same kind is admitted. It might well happen that a person might have in his possession a single counterfeit bill or coin without knowing it to be such; but he would be much less likely to do so twice, and every repetition of such an act would increase the probability that he knew that the bills or coins. were counterfeit. If he did know it, the guilty intent would be an implication of law, and not an inference of fact. To this class belongs the case of Reg. v. Roebuck, cited in the brief.

Another class of cases consists of those in which it becomes necessary to show that the act for which the prisoner was indicted was not accidental, e. g. where the prisoner had shot the same person twice within a short time, or where the same person had fired a rick of grain twice, or where several deaths by poison had taken place in the same family, or where children of the same mother had mysteriously died. In such cases it might well happen that a man should shoot another accidentally; but that he should do it twice within a short time would be very unlikely. So, it might easily happen that a man using a gun might fire a rick of barley once by accident; but that he should do it several times in succession would be very improbable.

So, a person might die of accidental poisoning; but that several persons should so die in the same family at different times would be very unlikely.

So, that a child should be suffocated in bed by its mother might happen once; but several similar deaths in the same family could not reasonably be accounted for as accidents.

So, in the case of embezzlement effected by means of false entries, a single false entry might be accidentally made; but the probability of accident would diminish at least as fast as the instances increased. To this class of cases belong Rex v. Voke, Reg. v. Geering, Reg. v. Cotton, Reg. v. Roder, Rex v. Mogg, Reg. v. Dossett, Reg. v. Bailey, Reg. v. Proud, Reg. v. Richardson, cited in the brief for the prosecution.

There is another class of cases in which proof of the commission of one crime tends to show a motive for the commission of the crime with which the prisoner is charged.

"A. was indicted for the murder of H. It was opined that A., having malice against P., had hired H. to murder him, and that H. did so; but that H. being detected, A. had murdered H. to prevent a discovery of his (A.'s) guilt respecting the murder of P. Evidence was given of expressions of malice used by A. towards P., and it was held that the prosecutor might also give evidence to show that H. was in fact the person by whom P. had been murdered." Rex v. Clewes, 6 Car. & P. 221; Littledale, Har. D. 1, 1942.

"On trial of the prisoner for the murder of his wife, in the absence

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of direct evidence, proof of an adulterous intercourse between the prisoner and another woman is admissible to repel the presumption of innocence arising from the conjugal relation." State v. Watkins, 9 Conn. 47; 2 U. S. D. 288.

So, in Com. v. Ferrigan, the adulterous intercourse of the defendant with the wife of the deceased tends to show a motive for the murder.

In cases of indictments for obtaining goods under false pretences, it very often happens that the respondent has been in some kind of business. of which buying and selling goods on credit makes a part; and in such case the difficulty is, to draw the line between the points where legitimate business ceases and fraud begins. In such cases a single purchase of goods on credit might happen in the ordinary course of business; but if a party should make several purchases of goods at a time when he was in failing circumstances, that fact would have some tendency to show that he knew that he was in failing circumstances, and that he did not intend to pay for them, or expect that he should be able to do it. Of course the effect of such testimony would depend upon the number and amount of such purchases, the after-disposition of the goods purchased, and all the other circumstances. To this class belong the cases of Com. v. Eastman, Bradley v. Obear, and Hovey v. Grant.

Another class of cases consists of those in which the evidence tends to show a general plan or conspiracy, one act of which was that which is in issue. To this class belong Mason v. The State, and perhaps Com. v. Turner & Shearer.

If the indictment were for being a common seller of spirituous liquor, the charge could be proved in hardly any other way than by showing many specific acts; and conversely, if a man were proved to be a professional counterfeiter, that would be evidence tending to show his guilty intent. Of this description are Rex v. Balls and Com. v. Edgerly.

In the case of sexual crimes, as fornication and adultery, where the object is to prove that the respondent has committed the crime with a particular individual, evidence tending to show previous acts of indecent familiarity would have a tendency to prove the breaking down and removal of the safeguards of self-respect and modesty, and the gradual advance, step by step, to the crime. Proof of the actual commission of the same crime would still more strongly tend to show the removal of those safeguards, and still more to make probable the commission of the crime. on trial. To this class belong Com. v. Horton, Com. v. Thrasher, State v. Wallace, State v. Marvin, Com. v. Merriam, and Com. v. Lahey.

It should also be remarked, that this being a matter of judgment, it is quite likely that courts would not always agree, and that some courts might see a logical connection where others could not. But however extreme the case may be, I think it will be found that the courts have always professed to put the admission of the testimony on the ground that there was some logical connection between the crime proposed to be proved other than the tendency to commit one crime as manifested by the tendency to commit the other.

In the case under consideration, I cannot see any such logical connection, between the commission of the rape upon Julienne Rousse and the murder of Josephine Langmaid, as the law requires. I am unable to see