that the high-bailiff had not sufficient evidence to warrant his granting a scrutiny.

$ 371. EXEMPLATIVE ARGUMENTS.

3. Exemplative.

This division includes those arguments in which from examples of a certain class known and understood we reason concerning others of the same class which are less known. Thus, if the ancient Roman Empire be taken as an example of military monarchies, we may reason from this concerning the character and tendencies of other military monarchies.

Various arguments are included in this division, the chief of which are those which are based upon (1) Experience, (2) Analogy, (3) Contrast.

(1) Experience.

$372. EXPERIENCE.

This is a kind of argument which is based upon facts in our own experience, or that of other men. In this way are formed many of the opinions of common life, such as those which relate to the order of nature, the seasons, tides, day and night, the weather, etc. The same method is applied to historical and political events; and whatever men have done in the past, we expect them to do, under similar circumstances, in the future.

An example of this kind of argument is to be found in Burke's speech on American Taxation, where, by referring to past experience in the history of the empire, he proves, 1st, that if the tax be repealed the Americans will not demand more concessions; 2d, that such repeal is quite consistent with the policy of the empire; and, 3d, that it will not derogate from the dignity of the nation. Erskine, in his speech on behalf of Hardy, maintains the truth of his definition of the law of treason by examples from the State trials.

(2) Analogy.

§ 373. ANALOGY.

This is that kind of argument in which, from the facts in one case judgment is made concerning the facts in another analo

gous case.

Analogy is different from similarity. In similarity the two

things brought into comparison are alike; in analogy they are not alike, but stand in similar relations to other things. Thus the course of history is not similar to a river, nor is eternity similar to an ocean, but the two cases are respectively analogous; that is, the course of history stands in the same relation to humanity which a river holds to the water which composes it. Analogy is a more fruitful source of figurative expression than similarity, and we see it constantly employed in tropes of all kinds, in allegories, fables, etc.

An example of this may be found in Fox's speech on the East India Bill, in which he shows that the charter of the East India Company might be set aside, because they had abused their trust, from the analogous case of King James, who had been deposed for the same cause. Grattan also argues in favor of the rights of the Irish people from the analogous case of the Americans.

Lord Mansfield, in the case of Evans, a Dissenter prosecuted by the city of London, prepares the way for a severe denunciation of the prosecution by dwelling upon the persecution of the Huguenots in France, which he makes use of as a case analogous to the persecution of Dissenters in England.

(3) Contrast.

§ 374. CONTRAST.

This is that kind of argument by which, from the facts in one case, we judge concerning another contrary case. Things contrary must be distinguished from things dissimilar. Dissimilarity may be predicated of any two things which are unlike, as a man and a book; but contrariety is predicated of two opposite things of the same class, as virtue and vice, black and white, north and south.

Illustrations of this form of argument may be found in many of the judgments of common life, in proverbs, maxims, and current sayings, especially those which assume the form of antithesis; as, "A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is a heaviness to his mother." "Penny wise, pound foolish." "Man proposes, God disposes." In this way we may argue in favor of the continued progress of modern civilization, since it is based upon freedom, from the fact of the decline of ancient civilization, which was based upon slavery.

Fox, in his speech on the Russian Armament, employs this argument by means of a contrast between Louis XIV. and Pitt. After describing the misery to which Louis was reduced, he points out his constancy, which enabled him to struggle on until he had attained to the honorable peace of Utrecht. "And shall we, sir," he says, "the pride of our age and the terror of Europe, submit to this humiliating sacrifice of our honor? Have we suffered a defeat at Blenheim ?"

Lord Erskine, in his speech on behalf of Hadfield, on a charge of high-treason for firing a pistol at the king, considers the cases mentioned by the opposite counsel, after which he turns to the case of the prisoner, and shows that it is altogether of a contrary nature.

§ 375. APPLICATION OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF

ARGUMENTS.

Causative arguments are associated chiefly with deduction; illustrative and exemplative with induction; and they all follow the laws of reasoning which are respectively applicable to these processes. If a further distinction be made, it may be said that the first is chiefly concerned with matters of opinion, the second with matters of fact, while the third has a more appropriate reference to the future.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE PRESENTATION OF ARGUMENTS.

$ 376. PRESENTATION OF ARGUMENTS.

IN the presentation of arguments there are various ways by which their effectiveness may be increased. These refer chiefly to clearness of statement, strengthening of argument, and emphasis of propositions.

§ 377. CLEARNESS OF STATEMENT AND STRENGTHENING OF

ARGUMENT.

1. In method, as in style, the first requisite is clearness; for in order that we shall follow the writer's train of thought, or

appreciate the force of his argument, each successive step must be readily and fully comprehended.

Ist. This is attained, in the first place, by definitions, examples, and illustrations, which have already been sufficiently considered.

2d. Explanations of important points often serve as a valuable introduction to the main argument. Thus Fox, in his speech on the Westminster Scrutiny, prepares for his discussion of the case by a brief statement of four different ways through which, in case of doubt, the law may be discovered. 3d. Analysis and synthesis are of great value.

By analysis is meant the explication of the topics of classified arguments, and their enumeration in detail. Synthesis is the converse of analysis, and means the combination of all the particular topics of argument, and their presentation in classified order. Where these are united the argument gains unusual clearness. In this way the writer leads up from a lower fact to a higher law, and shows how the former is contained in the latter. At the same time the reader or hearer has a feeling of pleasure from being made to share the confidence of the writer, and as he follows him in his investigation step by step the argument appears clearer and the conclusion more convincing.

§ 378. TRANSITION.

2. Transition has already been noticed under the head of harmony; but further consideration is needed to show its connection with argument. Transitions may be so managed as to be of great service in strengthening the argument; and that arrangement of the general divisions is the best where they are so made that one appears to grow out of another.

An example of this is found in the first part of Burke's speech on American Taxation, where the transitions are the following: That the repeal of the tax on tea would not lead to a demand for further concessions.

That the repeal of the other taxes has paved the way for the repeal of this.

That the exigencies of the East India Company make the repeal necessary.

That the tax, though small, is still unjust; and foolish from the very fact of being small.

That its repeal is not inconsistent with the dignity of the government, since a repeal of other taxes has taken place under the same circumstances.

Another example is found in the speech of Lord Erskine, in behalf of Lord George Gordon, when indicted for high-treason: After the exordium, he begins by reflecting upon the attorney-general for his obscure introduction.

But agrees with him in his estimate of the greatness of the crime of high-treason.

On account of this, the definition of high-treason is most rigidly and explicitly made by the law.

But if this definition be overstrained, the liberty of the subject would be endangered.

From which he proceeds to give a definition of high-treason, and lays down a criterion by which it may be tested, showing that all departures from this have been prudently checked.

The definition is then applied to the present case, and the argument is brought to bear more directly upon the charge, exhibiting the same characteristic of close connection and outgrowth of one argument from another. This is the chief feature of Lord Erskine's style, and distinguishes him beyond others.

$379. AMPLIFICATION.

3. Amplification has been already considered as one of the figures of gradation in its connection with style; but it deserves a fuller notice as to its importance in argument. Here it is of great value by dwelling upon any important proposition, and thereby giving it greater prominence. Burke is distinguished by his frequent and successful use of this. In the speeches of Pitt there are also frequent examples; but one of the best is the following, from Lord Erskine's speech in behalf of Stockdale. The proposition is that a free press is a good thing, and that excessive restrictions are an evil:

"It is the nature of everything that is great and useful, both in the animate and inanimate world, to be wild and irregular, and we must be content to take them with the alloys that belong to them. Genius breaks from the fetters of criticism, but its wanderings are sanctioned by its majesty and wisdom when it advances on its path; subject it to the critic, and you tame it into dulness. Mighty rivers break down their banks in the winter, sweeping away to death the flocks which are fattened on the soil that they fertilize in the summer; the few may be saved by the embankments from