didactic value of the northern history was recognized by some prophet or group of Judean prophets who lived in the dark days preceding the great reformation of Josiah in 621 B.C. The variant accounts of the same events were, however, distracting and not adapted to practical use. Accordingly, the two histories were combined. Naturally, the early Judean was made the basis, and this was supplemented by extracts from the northern history. If the two versions of the same narrative were closely parallel, they were joined together, so that, as for example, in the account of Jacob's deception to secure his father's blessing, succeeding verses or sections were taken from the two different historie s. If they could not be thus fused, the two versions were sometimes introduced independently, as are the two accounts of Isaac's deception regarding Rebekah in Genesis 12 and 26. If the variations in the two versions were too great, simply the one was quoted, and that was ordinarily the southern, for it was the form of the tradition most familiar to the Judean compiler. When there was but one version of a story, it was usually reproduced, whether found originally in the northern or in the southern history. The task of combining the two sources was carried through with great care, and the result was a composite narrative, abounding in minor inconsistencies and abrupt transitions in literary style and point of view, but representing that which was most valuable in the two histories."

Kent.

ADDITIONAL READING REFERENCES.

Kent, Heroes and Crises of Early Hebrew History, pp. 1-65. Fowler, History of the Literature of Ancient Israel, pp. 66-104. McFadyen, Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians, pp. 3-26, 76-83.

CHAPTER XVI.

JUSTICE THROUGH LAWS.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLY HEBREW LAW CODES.

PURPOSE OF THE LESSON.

To cultivate the spirit of justice and square dealing. Also to give the right point of view for interpreting the laws of the Old Testament.

TELLING THE LESSON STORY.

We have seen that the first powerful impulse toward moral and spiritual development came to the Hebrews through their experiences in Egypt, and especially their escape from Egypt, under their great moral leader Moses. We have traced the influence of Moses, as reflected in the early historical writings of the Old Testament. Now we are to trace the same influence along another line of development, namely the early Hebrew laws.

DISCUSSING THE LESSON.

Do you believe in sacred numbers? Perhaps some of the boys and girls remember the time, a few years ago, when a special significance was jokingly attributed to the number "twenty-three." In ancient times, people made much of sacred numbers; seven and three, for example. How about the number ten? Is there any special reason in the nature of things, why there should have been ten commandments, rather than nine or eleven? (Question 1.) Bring out the real reason, as in the pupil's book. This leads naturally to question 2. Try the experiment of making your own list of commandments. The majority of the commands in the Mosaic list are certainly fundamental enough to find a place in any list. Are there any important duties omitted? Would you find a place for such commands as these: "Do not be wasteful of time or property." "Be courteous to all." Is courtesy important enough for a place in such a list? Should there be a special injunction for parents and older people, requiring kindness and courtesy to children, to correspond with the one requiring children to honor their parents? On the whole, is the Mosaic list made up chiefly of positive commands or negative? Can you formulate a positive command? How about the second great command of Jesus: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as

thyself"? Is there anything in the original Ten Commandments to correspond to this?

It will probably be agreed that the second commandment, forbidding images, while no doubt a wise provision in those days, is not in any way binding today. Call special attention to the tenth commandment, which forbids evil thoughts as well as evil deeds.

Question 3 will probably elicit a very favorable judgment regarding Hammurabi. The Bible of course represents chiefly the revelation of God through the Hebrew race. But does it not contain some revelations of moral and spiritual truth which originally came through other races? Recall what we learned in our study of the New Testament. To what nation did Luke belong? What contribution, if any, did Hammurabi make, through the Canaanites, and eventually through the Hebrews, to the moral and religious progress of mankind? Was not Hammurabi a sincere lover of justice, and fair dealing? Must we not give some credit to Hammurabi as well as to Moses, for the fact that the Hebrews became pre-eminently a justice-loving race?

In connection with 4, bring out that the insertion of the large body of ceremonial laws, in the midst of the historical narratives, has considerably diminished the interest and therefore the moral effectiveness of some parts of the latter. On the other hand, it has increased the impressiveness of the laws, as for example the Commandments in Exodus 20.

In connection with 5, bring out the fact that in bulk, the ceremonial laws far exceed the moral laws, in the first five books of the Old Testament. Have the class glance quickly through Exodus and Leviticus. But arouse enthusiasm for the far greater value of the moral laws. Take for example the decalogue below (from Exodus 23: 1-8). It was intended to promote justice in law courts. It is clear that in those days some judges and some witnesses could be corrupted by bribes. Others were weak willed, and in the face of a popular clamor, did not have the backbone to tell the exact truth. They would “follow a multitude to do evil.”

Of the laws in this decalogue, the first five are chiefly for witnesses, and the second five for judges.

I. For Witnesses.

1. Thou shalt not spread abroad a false report.

2. Put not thy hand with the wicked to be an unrighteous witness.

3. Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil.

4.

Thou shalt not bear testimony in a case to pervert justice.

5. Thou shalt not favor a poor man in his cause.

II. For Judges.

6. Thou shalt not pervert the justice due to thy poor in his cause.

7. Keep thee far from a false matter.

8. Thou shalt not condemn the innocent and righteous.

9. Thou shalt not vindicate a wicked man.

10. Thou shalt take no bribe.

Are such injunctions needed in our law-courts today?

PUPIL'S WORK ON THE CHRONOLOGICAL CHART.

In the chronological chart have the pupils make all the insertions in the column on Laws, as shown in this manual. Insert also the Priestly History, and the Compilation of the Pentateuch, in the column of Historical Narratives.

INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS.

The Babylonian Background of Israel's Laws.

"In the light of recent discoveries, the study of ancient law begins today, not with the legal system of Israel, of Greece or of Rome, but with that of early Babylonia. Long centuries before the days of Moses or Minos or Romulus, the peoples living between the lower waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates developed legal codes that deeply influenced all subsequent legislation. This early rise of law in ancient Babylonia is primarily traceable to the physical contour and position of the land itself. For countless generations beyond the dawn of history, the rich alluvial territory lying between the two great rivers attracted the nomadic peoples of every quarter of southwestern Asia. The soil of this coveted region could be reclaimed from the annual floods, and permanently held against the strong foes ever pressing in from the east and west, only by the most arduous toil of hand and head. While Nature early spurred the mixed, virile population of ancient Babylonia to develop a high type of civilization, she generously rewarded its persistent labor. In return for skilful cultivation the land furnished lavish harvests; for the development of the arts it also provided abundant facilities, not the least of which was the soft clay of the river banks, a material early utilized for buildings, for military defences, and for literary rccords.

"Natural gateways opened in every direction for commerce. The Tigris and Euphrates with their tributaries penetrated far into the populous highlands to the east and north of Babylonia. On the west, the Arameans and Arabs, the great land traders, carried Babylonian wares to the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and southern Arabians, and in turn brought back the products of those other centers of ancient civilization. To the south, the Persian Gulf opened into the Indian Ocean and commanded the trade of Arabia and India. It is not strange, therefore, that Babylonia early developed a rich, dominantly commercial civilization, the influence of which radiated throughout the known world.

"This intense commercial activity explains why the art of writing and the making of law attained in Babylonia so high a stage of development; commerce demands for its development exact written records and the protection of just and well-defined laws."- Kent.

Primitive Hebrew Codes.

"In Exodus 21:1-23: 1a is found a group of decalogues which throws remarkably clear light upon social and economic conditions in early Israel. The setting and literary form of these decalogues indicate that they were incorporated in the historical record by the Northern Israelite prophetic historian who wrote about 750 B.C. Their carefully developed decalogue and pentad form suggests, however, that they had been handed down orally for generations before they were committed to writing and given their present setting. Most of the customs assumed in these laws, and many of the principles which underlie them, are found in the old Babylonian code of Hammurabi (about 1900 B.C.). Many of the laws in the primitive decalogues of Exodus reflect the early nomadic and agricultural life of the Hebrews. Some, as for example those which refer to fields and houses, indicate that when formulated, the Israelites were firmly established in Canaan. There are no references, however, to the temple of Solomon, or to the institutions which characterize the united kingdom. It is highly probable that most, if not all, of these early Hebrew laws were in existence in their present or slightly different form in the days of David and Solomon. They may, therefore, be studied as a faithful contemporary record of the social, moral and religious standards and customs of the Hebrews in the days of the united kingdom."- Kent.