bed, and, after his friends have washed him with warm water in which aromatic leaves have been boiled, he is dressed from head to foot, in order that he may appear in the spirit world to the very best advantage. Should he unfortunately die before thus being dressed, it is necessary to call in the aid of a very low caste, whose position is so degraded that they are prohibited from worshipping in public temples, and who cannot be made more unclean even by the touch of a corpse. These, therefore, are summoned to wash and dress the dead, while the relations kneel around. The dressing having been accomplished, certain things -varying according to rank-are placed in the mouth of the corpse. A Mandarin of the highest grade is provided with a piece of gold, a piece of silver, a bit of jade, a pearl and a precious stone. The lower grades, however, are entitled to three bits of silver, one piece of silver, or at least three copper cash or three sorts of grain. When a man dies, the first care of his friends is to place at the door of the house a cup of cold water-a custom for which no satisfactory reason is assigned. Then a suit of really good clothes must be burnt, together with most of the dead man's wardrobe. Even his sedan chair, opium pipe, and all other luxuries must be sacrificed, for all these things must be equally necessary in the spirit-world, where they cannot be obtained, though they can so easily be transmitted thither by the simple process of burning them. It is deemed important that all funeral arrangements should be the very best that can be provided, and the survivors often impoverish themselves for years to secure a decent burial. As to the coffin, the price of which may range from £5 to £500, it is essential that it should be as solid and expensive as possible. Indeed, they are often provided beforehand as birth-day presents from dutiful sons.

A Japanese will never lie down with his head to the north and his feet to the south. The reason is that a Japanese corpse is always buried in this position. In the rooms of private hou-es it is therefore common to find the north, south, east and west marked on the respective walls, or on the ceiling. In travelling some Japanese carry a compass to ensure the proper sleep line! In the outside world it sometimes happens that a person kills the one who wrongs him. The Japanese idea of spiting an enemy he cannot kill is to kill himself. Hence we read, in the recent war with Russia, of so many cases of Japanese suicides (Hara-kiri). This consisted of driving a sword or dagger into the abdomen and literally disembowelling oneself. Although it has now

been forbidden by the Mikado, it was a form of death at one time offered by the Government to any sollier instead of being handed over to the common executioner. A soldier having been sentenced to death was allowed the option of committing "ha kiri". Time and place were set out in due form, and Government officials were sent to witness the proper carrying out of the suicide. The Japanese never use the word "hara-kiri " however; they use the Chiness term "seppuku".

When a man dies in an Irish country village, all the neighbourhood comes to do him honour. No one would dream of staying away from the funeral. Before the obsequies, everyone flocks to the house, with its piece of crape on the knocker. Those who have not already seen the corpse, go into the room where it is lying and offer some eulogy in regard to the deceased. In some districts a collection is made for the priest on the day of the funeral. The funeral customs, however, in various parts of the country differ. In some places the hearse is followed to the grave by men only; elsewhere women form a part of the procession. It is customary in most places for the friends of the dead to carry the coffin a part of the way and for the hearse to move slowly in front. No Irish custom is more famous than that of "waking" the dead. Far back in the pagan times we are told that great persons were usually waked for seven nights and days. The modern wake seems to be but a pale reflection, a bewildered memory of the ceremonies which used to follow a death till about 100 years ago. It is a mistake to think that a wake always degenerates into an orgy although it is to be observed that some at least of the Catholic bishops have absolutely forbidden them. In some parts of the country the sitting-up has come to be regarded as a kind of excitement for the young men. Their elders do not believe in losing a night's sleep an 1 pay their respects to the dead man's family by calling for a few minutes before going to work in the morning.

When the Jew is at the point of death, several passages from Holy Writ are quoted solemnly. Covering the face when the soul has departed, another declaration is made, including the phrase "Dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt reture In the case of almost all Jews the dissoluti alliance between the celestial elements material body is denoted by a lighted t symbol of immortality), a h for ceremonial purificati "Tahara," washing precedes the funer by volunteers as a

OW that so many Universities are on the anvil in India and people are hammering away at them for all they are worth, perhaps a few facts and figures in regard to the constitution and function of Universities may not be out of place or time. A clear idea of the needs and demands of the community, and of the manner in which these could be satisfied, and the adaptations indispensable to achieve the object in view, should precede the formulation of a scheme. The problem has to be thought out in terms of our life; blind imitation even of the most venerable and successful models existing elsewhere cannot be of much use unless there is some correspondence between our objects and their objects. Still a comparative study of modern Universities cannot but be of interest to us since we are engaged in promoting the practical efficiency of our country and industrialising it, a function which is admirably served by all the Universities of the civilised countries with the possible exception of Oxford and Cambridge. Let the facts speak for themselves.

Even Oxford and Cambridge have adopted some modern features. There is provision made in addition to the Degree for Diploma Courses at Cambridge in such subjects as Public Health, Education, and Agriculture. Extension work too receives due attention. The number of Extension teachers is 25, and the centres at which they lecture 60. In 1912-1913, the total number of attendance at these lectures amounted to 9,630; and those regularly attending the classes held after the lectures to 2,402. Amongst the Diploma Courses at Oxford may be mentioned Public Health, Ophthalmology, Teaching, Forestry, and Engineering. Extension is included; in 1912 the number of teachers employed in this depa ment amounted to 40; number of delivered 1,345; number of cent attendance 14,130. The authori Cambridge should put the rest tension work beyond dispute Now a word about me"

Arts, Science and Education Courses attract 51 per cent. of the students and the other 49 per cent. pursue Practical Sciences.

The total number of students of University grade in Canada is over 10,000, though the population of the country is only about 7 millions! Of these it is no exaggeration to say that over 60 per cent. pursue courses likely to improve their practical efficiency.

It is more difficult to classify the attendance at the Municipal English Universities according to subjects. But taking the figures of graduation in recent years, I find that the proportion of those taking Applied Science or Practical Arts to those falling under Humanities and Pure Sciences is something like 80 to 20. The following figures based on another classification also illustrate the proper place of a modern University in national life:

ance.

It seems to me that the usefulness and desirability of a University depend on two factors:On the kind of subjects taught, viz., whether they are of practical utility or not, and on the methods of instruction and other arrangements being such as are compatible with the largest possible attendIn the present impoverished condition of India it is hard to justify a University that does not aim at promoting the practical efficiency of the largest number of people on any ground moral or economical, especially if it cannot be self-supporting and has to depend on the general taxpayer for the preservation of its narrow, artificial life.

Contrast with the above figures those presented by Madras and it will afford convincing explanation why the Madras University is so disappointing. The number of candidates registered in 1914, for examination in the different branches is as follows:

Science Groups (pure) 196 E. A., New Regulations: Humanities Science (Pure) B. A., Old Regulations: Humanities L. T., Old and New Law

Medical (all grades) Engineering

404

249

428

151

...

. 1, 137

I have not been able to classify according to subjects some 300 candidates appearing for the M. A. and the B. A. Honours. Candidates taking Applied Sciences come up only to 11 per cent. of the total number of candidates. The total number of B. A's now on the rolls in the several optional subjects is estimated to be 11,686. Of these not one has any acquaintance with Applied Sciences. The total number of L. T's is

1,181; that of B. A., B. L's., 2,711; and M. L's 33; L. M. & S., 347; M. B. & C. M., 134; M. D's 13; Licentiates in Sanitary Science 5; Bachelors of Civil Engineering 137. This is the output of the University from about 1861 down to 1914. Applied Science graduates can't on any computation form more than 5 per cent. of the Arts and Pure Science graduates! I have no hesitation in saying that a University of this type would have been radically remodelled in any civilised country in the world long ago, and a better one evolved, suited to the progressive tendencies of the time.

The Government of India have done memorable service to the cause of educational expansion by pronouncing in favour of the establishment of smaller Universities of the teaching and residential type. There may be a doubt if the emphasis should be placed on the smallness or on teaching or on Residence or any particular combination of these features. Smallness cannot be a blessed thing in itself, an end to be sought for for its own sake. The problem of University organisation is not quite reducible to the simple arithmetical operation of subtraction of numbers! Neither is it necessary for every teaching University to be small. Toronto is a teaching University, but its membership is above 4,000, the largest of any University in the Empire! Doubtless Residential Universities are bound to be small unless the funds are unlimited; and it is also possible to fashion a teaching scheme which would perforce limit the number of students, as is proposed to be done at Nagpur. Whether such things are desirable or not is a different question; but the point is, that smallness, to be at all rational or reasonable, should result from other circumstances, and must not be considered as an objective in itself. On the contrary, type for type the larger the University the better; for it gives more scope for the diversification of studies and pursuits, and helps to avert the narrow-mindedness that life on a small scale is likely to produce.

To summarise the chief features of modern Universities:

In addition to the Degree, they also teach for the Diploma. Arts and Law play a subordinate part. Science is given a chief place, and Applied Science constitutes the most important and the most attractive feature. Medicine and Engineering and Agriculture are found in the programme of all modern Universities. Extension work is included. Partial students are admitted and every effort is made to bring the University into close touch with the life of the people. If modern Universities have played a big part in the development of nations,

it is because of these arrangements. If the Madras University has not been an astounding success, the reason is, to quote Hon'ble Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, that it is out of date.

Man is a gregarious creature; the weaker the more gregarious. In his actions and thoughts, and in fact everything except the pursuit of money, he craves to be fortified by company. The University Reformer need not be apprehensive of isolation now; for reform is in the air and also at the holy city of Benares. The Hindu University has covered itself with glory by providing a precedent for the inclusion of Technology and Agriculture amongst the faculties, a precedent which one hopes will be eagerly taken up by all the State foundations in India. When a private University is so hopeful of success, there cannot be much reason for Governments to hang back and refuse ampler recognition, already sadly overdue, to Applied Sciences. Sir Rabindranath Tagore aud Mr. Justice Abdur Rahim, thinkers and leaders of the first order, have pronounced in favour of a modernisation of academic conditions, including the employment of vernaculars as the media for higher instruction. Sir Harold Stuart finds that Indian conditions require Universities which approximate to the Municipal Universities of England. Dr. Harold Mann of Poona, and most of the leaders of Bombay and in the North, are strong advocates of the inclusion Technological and Commercial Courses. would be an insult to the intelligence of the country to think that these gentlemen do not represent the statesmanship that takes the practicable and the expedient also into consideration To quote the Hon'ble Mr. Malaviya:

of

It

But apart from that they (the Presidency Universities) are not up-to-date in the sense of modern Universities. You find theoretical science taught at various centres and Applied Sciences neglected to a deplorable degree.. ... Well if, after receiving several years of instruction in theoretical science, our students do not follow up science, there is no practical use. This requires some change, The application of science to Arts and Industries, to the growing needs of the situation, and the need for a University which will give prominence to this aspect of education, are very keenly felt.

It is not necessary to quote more opinions; suffice it to say that reform ideas are becoming almost respectable.

It is obvious that the multiplication of Universities of the type now prevalent in India, or the introduction of Universities which go further still in the direction of theoretic excellence and practical uselessness, will not meet the needs of the situation. The doctrine of efficiency has been half-understood and therefore misapplied. As the

hero of the Hindu University, Mr. Malaviya observed at the recent United Provinces Educational Conference :

The Government stauds to the people in the position of parents. What would a parent do when he has got a large number of children? Would he want that a half or a fourth of them should be fed on rich luxurious food and the rest left in the street ? He would never do that. Neither should the Government.

What is wanted is not higher specialisation in Pure Sciences, a longer University Course, a deeper research into history or philosophy or languages, which could only benefit a few men, but the cultivation of Applied Science and extensive popularisation of practical knowledge. If these points are ignored, a University will not only be of no service but would intensify some of the defects in our character caused by the present system of education. It would not be worth having even if it could be had for nothing; for there is no extravagance so great and indefehsible as spending even small sums on bad purchases.

APPLIED SCIENCES IN MODERN UNIVERSITIES,

The mere inclusion of Applied Sciences such as Teaching and Agriculture within the scope of a University or departmental organisation is not more important than the method of including them. In some quarters, there is a tendency to make every course of this kind a post-graduate course, reducing the position of our B. A. to that of the Matriculation in modern Universities. Whatever may be the theory of it, in practice Teaching, Engineering, and Medicine are postgraduate courses in Madras, an arrangement which involves considerable loss of time, energy, and money, and restricts both the scope of studies as well as the attendance. That it restricts the attendance is obvious; for few people could afford the luxury of spending half their life in preparation for such subordinate posts as have been allotted for the benefit of Indian graduates, posts both small in number and low in status.

It res

tricts the scope, because having spent such a long time in qualifying for what may be called the ordinary degree in these professional courses, no one is likely to go in for higher specialisation even if facilities for such specialisation such as exist in most foreign Universities are created here. In point of fact, such facilities do not exist; our present organisation of higher education and administration renders them useless and impossible. It may, therefore, be of interest to Indian educationists to know something of the provision made for the study of Applied Sciences in the great Municipal Universities of England.

At Leeds, Manchester, and Bristol, the B. Sc.

Fuel and Metallurgy.

Agriculture.

Colour Chemistry and Dyeing, and Chemistry of Leather Manufacture. In special cases, even candidates failing in the Intermediate Examination may be admitted to the Final Course. There are Honours Schools in these Applied Sciences, and also higher degrees such as M. Sc. and D. Sc. More important from the point of view of the Indian educationist than these higher degrees are the diplomas instituted in Applied Science and Technology. In the Diploma Course, Matriculation is not necessary; English students must satisfy the examiners in essay writing relative to the technical work they propose to take; foreign students are excused even this test. In regard to the Matriculation which is conducted by a joint Board representing Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds and Sheffield, candidates for entrance to the Faculties other than the Faculty of Medicine re required to satisfy the examiners in six subjects, three obligatory, and three selected. The obligatory subjects are English, English History, and Mathematics; and the optionals are Greek, Latin, French, German, some other language approved by the Board, either Mechanics or Physics, Chemistry, Geography, and either Natural History or Botany. The standard is not forbiddingly high. Commerce and Agriculture are similarly provided for as graduate courses covering a period of three years with provision also for Diploma Courses covering only two years. Teaching is part of the Arts Course and there is also provision for a shorter Diploma Course. I may add that those who do not pass the Matriculation Examination above described are required to pass an entrance examination before admission to the Engineering Departments in the following subjects:Arithmetic.

Algebra up to H.C.F. & L.C. M.
Geometry, the first book of Euclid.
Trignometry, simple problems involving
the trignometrical ratios.