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but the antithesis, begun by the numeral one, is not complete, without the last division.

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Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little, than to outlive a great deal."

"Be in peace with many; nevertheless, have but one counselor of a thousand."

"A friend cannot be known in prosperity; an enemy cannot be hid in adversity."

R. 3. In general, then, the semicolon separates the divisions of a sentence, when the latter division has a dependence on the former, whether the former has a dependence on the latter

or not.

3. When several members of a sentence have a dependence on each other, by means of a substitute for the same principal word, and the clauses, in other respects, constitute distinct propositions, the semicolon may be used; as, "Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars; she hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath also furnished her table.”—Prov. 9.

COLON.

§ 13. 1. The colon is used when the sense of the division of a period is complete, so as to admit of a full point, but something is added by way of illustration; as, "A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass in a few years he has all the endowments he is capable of; and were he to live ten thousand more, would be the same thing he is at present."-Spectator, No. 111.

PERIOD.

§ 14. 1. The period, or full point, marks a completion of the sense, a cadence of the voice, and the longest pause used between sentences. It closes a discourse also, or marks the completion of a subject, chapter, or section.

The full point is used also after initials when used alone; as, after N. S. for New Style; and after abbreviations; as, Croc. Anglic. for Crocus Anglicanus.

To these may be added,

2. The dash-which marks a break in the sentence, or an abrupt turn; as, "If thou art he-but O how fallen!"

3. The interrogation point? that closes a sentence which asks a question; as, "How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity?"

4. The exclamation point! which is used after sudden expressions of surprise, or other emotion; as, "O happiness! our being's end and aim !”

5. The parenthesis () and hooks [] include a remark or clause, not essential to the sentence in construction, but useful in explaining it, or introducing an important idea. They mark a moderate pause, and the clause included is read with a depressed tone of voice; as,

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)

Virtue alone is happiness below."-Pope.

It will be readily seen that the sentence is not at all dependent on the parenthetical clause; but the converse is not true, for that clause has a dependence more or less remote, on the sentence. Thus, enough for man to know, is not intelligible without connecting it with the parts of the sentence preceding and following. So in this passage: "If any one pretends to be so sceptical, as to deny his own existence, (for really to doubt of it, is manifestly impossible,) let him enjoy his beloved happiness."-Locke, 4, 10,2. The included clause here is connected with the preceding part of the sentence, and it is a substitute for existence.

With regard to the duration of the pauses, it may be observed that the comma, semicolon, colon, and full point, may bear to each other the proportion of one, two, three, four, and the interrogation point and exclamation point may be considered each as equal in time to the colon or period. But no precise rule can be given, which shall extend to every case; the length of the pauses must depend much on the nature of the discourse, and their respective proportions may be often varied to advantage by a judicious speaker.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.

§ 15. 6. R. 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing.

R. 2. The first word after a period; and, if the two sentences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation.

R. 3. The appellations of the Deity; as, "God, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Holy Spirit."

R. 4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships; as, George, the Alps, the Hudson.

R. 5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, Roman, American, French.

R. 6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form; as, "Always remember this maxim: Know thyself.""

R. 7. But when a quotation is brought in obliquely, after a comma, a capital is unnecessary; as, "Solomon observes, 'that pride goes before destruction.""

R. 8. Every noun and principal in the titles of books; as, Webster's Dictionary of the English Language, Thomson's Seasons, Stephens' Travels.

R. 9. The first word of every line in poetry.

R. 10. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are written in capitals.

R. 11. Many other words may begin with capitals when they are very emphatic.

§ 16. FIGURES OF SPEECH.

1. As figures of speech are so common in our language, it is very important that all have some general knowledge, at least, of them. That pupils may prepare themselves to answer questions, we shall mention the most common and give examples under each.

2. "Figures, in general," says Jamieson," may be described to be that language which is prompted either by the imagination, or by the passions." Men, at first, uttered their words and meaning through figures. For the want of a distinct name for every individual thing, they were under the necessity of using one word for many objects, hence, the origin of figures; as, for example, speaking of the good man, they would say, "that light arose to him in darkness." Not that we are to take the words light and darkness in their literal meaning, but substituted for comfort and adversity, on account of some resemblance or analogy which light and darkness are supposed to bear to those conditions in life.

3. The figures of speech, that are most commonly used, are the following: Metaphor, Allegory, Simile, Irony, Personification, Apostrophe, Climax, &c. I shall give each a defini

tion.

17. 1. Metaphor is an expression, where a word, or phrase, departs from its more common and ordinary meaning

to another, which it resembles in some respects, but differs from it in others; or, in fewer words, it is a simile or comparison without the form of a comparison. Thus, when we say that Demosthenes was the bulwark of Athens, the word bulwark is a metaphor. But if we say that Demosthenes was a bulwark to Athens, then it becomes a simile or comparison.

2. Metaphors abound in all writings; from the Scriptures they may be produced in great numbers. Christ is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c. Thus men, according to their dispositions, are called wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, &c. The following are examples of Metaphors: "At length, however, the bill was floated through both houses, on the tide of a great majority, and steered into a safe harbor of royal approbation." "In peace, thou art the gale of spring, in war, the mountain storm." "Tuthal went forth with the stream of his people, but they met a rock; for Fingal stood unmoved; broken they rolled back." "The proud pillar of their independence has been shaken down, and the whole fabric lies in ruins."

3. When I say of a great statesman," he is the pillar of state,” I use a metaphor. When I say he is like a pillar of state, I use a simile or comparison.

§ 18. ALLEGORY.

1. Allegory is a species of writing, in which one thing is expressed and another thing understood. The analogy is intended to be so obvious, that the reader cannot miss the application, but is left to draw the proper conclusion for his own use. The following extract from the 80th Psalm is a fine example of an Allegory; the people are represented_under the image of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: Thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root; it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea; and her branches into the rivers." The following picture of Slander is an Allegory:

"No, 'tis slander,

Whose edge is sharper than the sword, whose tongue
Rides on the parting winds, and doth belie
All comers of the earth, kings, queens, and states,
Maids, matrons; nay, the secrets of the grave."

There are many allegories in the Bible and in the speeches of our Indian chiefs.

§ 19. COMPARISON OR SIMILE.

1. Comparison or Simile is, when the resemblance is between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form. If, for instance, I discover a resemblance between a man and a horse in swiftness, between a man and a lion in strength, or between a man and a rock in steadiness, such resemblances are called similes. "The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen only by a few."

"As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people."

"The music of Carryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul."

"Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."

§ 20. METONYMY.

1. Metonymy is when the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause, the container for the thing contained, or the sign for the thing signified. When we say, “they read Milton," the cause is put for the effect, meaning Milton's works. 66 Gray hairs should be respected;" here the effect is put for the cause, meaning old age, which produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "the kettle boils," the container is put for the thing contained. "He addresses the chair," that is, the person in the chair. "Vocal groves," that is, birds.

§ 21. SYNECDOCHE.

1. Synecdoche puts the whole for a part, or a part for the whole; as, a fleet of twenty sail instead of ships. The cow is a useful animal, the dog is a faithful creature; here an individual is put for the species. We sometimes use the head for the person, and the waves for the sea, or an attribute may be put for the subject; as, deep for the sea.

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