PAPER.

and everything but the pure vegetable fibre. This machine (figs. 1, 2, and 3) is a large cast-iron vessel, usually about 10 feet in length, 4 feet in width, and 2 feet in depth. In the middle, occupying about two-thirds of its length, is a partition, always cast with it, called the mid-feather, a (figs. 1 and 2), to support the axle or driving-shaft, b

Fig. 2.

(figs. 1 and 2). This turns the cylinder c (fig. 1),
which has a large number of teeth or ridges running
across it, which grip and tear the rags, or other
materials, as they are drawn under it by the current
formed by its revolutions. In order to facilitate
this, a peculiar form is given to the bottom of the
in which the cylinder works, as seen in fig. 3.
part
The rise, a (fig. 3), is called the back-fall, and the

Fig. 3.

an hour is submitted to the same process as in the first; by which all vestiges of the bleaching materials are removed, and the stuff so much more broken down as to be called half-stuff. From this engine it is let out by a valve, and finds its way into the beating-engine, which is placed at a lower level so as to receive it. Here the arrangement is nearly the same as in the washing and intermediate engines; but the ridges on the bars below the cylin der, and on the cylinder itself, are much sharper, and the disintegration of the fibres is carried on witu great rapidity until they are quite separated; ard the flow of the water in a rapid current, as it passes the cylinder, draws them out and arranges them in the water in much the same way as wool or cotton is laid on the carding-cylinders of a carding-machine. This operation takes about five hours, at the end of which time the materials have been worked up with the water into an almost impalpable pulp. This is then let out into the pulp vat, where it is kept continually agitated by a wooden wheel revolving in it, called a hog, and from this the hand-workman or machine is supplied.

We will now suppose the pulp formed and ready for use in the vat, and will first describe the process of hand-making, as formerly practised in all countries, and still in use, more or less, in all paper-making countries. The workman or vatman takes an implement called a

mould, which con

Fig. 4.

fine fibres of bamboo, which the workmen of these countries split and weave with remarkable skill. There are usually two kinds of moulds employed. In one, as in fig. 4, the wires are woven across each other, forming a very fine gauze, and paper made with them is known as wove. In the other, there are several cross-bars in the frame, and straight wires are laid from side to side, and about four or five to each half sheet are laid across them lengthwise, to keep them in position; the transverse wires are about twenty to the inch; the longitudinal ones are a little more than an inch apart. Paper made

materials are drawn up to, and through the narrow space at b, by the current; then, as they pass over the ridged surface, c, they come in contact with the ridged surface of the cylinder, and are thus violently on such moulds ground and drawn through, the stream carrying is called laid, and them round and round until they are thoroughly is easily known washed and partly pulped; or, as it is technically by the impression called, broken in. The washing-machine is supplied of the wires upon with a continued flow of clean water, and the soiled it. Whichever water as regularly escapes through a fine gauze kind of mould is screen, in the ends of the cylinders, in which is an used, another imingenious arrangement for raising it and carrying it plement called away through the axis, which is hollow. The con- the deckle (fig. 5) tents of the washing-machine are then allowed to is required. It flow out through a large valve, opening downwards is a thin frame, into the draining-chest. Here the water is drained which exactly away, and the stuff is then placed in the bleaching corresponds to vats, which are made of stone, and each calculated the frame of the mould, and the workman first to contain a hundredweight of stuff, which is here submitted to the action of a strong solution of chloride of lime for about twenty-four hours, and frequently agitated; after which it is transferred to a hydraulic press, and pressed so as to remove the greater portion of the liquid and chloride of lime. It is then placed in another washing-engine, and for

Fig. 5.

places the deckle on the mould, and then dips them into the pulp; the deckle forms a ridge which retains just enough of the liquid pulp for the sheet of paper. The water of the pulp speedily drains through the wire gauze, and after it has stood in an inclined position for a few minutes, another workman, called the coucher, applies the

PAPER.

face of the sheet of pulp to a piece of felt or has a shogging motion,
flannel cloth stretched on a board, called the or side-shake, which
couch, and the sheet thus pressed, leaves the mould,
and is left on the couch. Every successive sheet
is similarly treated, and they are piled one on
another, with a sheet of felt between each, until
from four to eight quires, or a post, as it is called,
is formed. Each post is put in a press, and under
pressure parts with nearly all the moisture in
the sheets of paper. The felts are then removed,
and after several pressings, and other minor opera-
tions, the paper is hung on hair ropes, called tribbles,
the drying-loft; and when dried, resembles
blotting-paper, and cannot be written upon. This
is remedied by dipping it in a weak solution of hot
size, sometimes tinged with colour, after which it is
pressed, dried, folded, and made up into quires. Hot
pressing and glazing are done by passing the sheets
through hot and polished iron rollers.

has an important
effect in working the
fibres together before
the pulp finally settles
down. When it reaches
the couching - rolls,
which press out most
of the remaining mois-
ture, and carry it
forward to the first
and second series of
press-rolls by means
of an endless web of
felt which passes
round them, the speed
of these rollers and
the travelling sheet of
In Britain very little paper is now made by felt, CC (figs. 6 and 7),
hand, the wonderful paper-machine having entirely is nicely calculated, so
changed the character of the manufacture. It is as to prevent a strain
usually stated that Louis Robert, a Frenchman, upon the still very
invented the paper-machine, and that it was tender web of paper.
brought to this country by Didot of Paris in an Sometimes the upper
imperfect state, but received improvements from rollers of these two
Fourdrinier. This ingenious manufacturer certainly series are filled with
did very much to make the paper-machine useful steam, in order to
and perfect, but it must not be overlooked that commence drying the
Bramah took out a previous patent in 1805, rather | web. The paper is
more than a year before Fourdrinier, for very similar now trusted to itself,
improvements to those described in Fourdrinier's and passes on, as indi-
specification. The object of all was to cause an cated by the arrows,
equal and well-regulated supply of the pulp to flow from the second press-
upon an endless wire-gauze apron, which would rolls to the first set of
revolve and carry on the paper until it is received drying cylinders, DD
on an endless sheet of felt, passing around and (figs. 6 and 7), where
between large couching cylinders. These machines it again meets with a
have now been brought to such perfection, that felt sheet, which keeps
paper can be made in one continuous web of any it in close contact with
length; and before leaving the machine, is dried, the drying cylinders,
calendered, hot pressed, and cut into sheets. Dif-which are of large size,
ferent engineers have varied the construction of the and filled with steam.
paper-machine, but the general principles of all are Around these it passes,
the same.
We therefore select for illustration the drying as it goes; is
machine which was exhibited by Mr George Ber- then received between
tram of Edinburgh, and which was universally the two smoothing-rolls,
acknowledged to be by far the most complete and or damp calenders,
perfect which was presented in the International which press both sur-
Exhibition of 1862.
faces, and remove the
marks of the wire and
felt, which are until
then visible on the
paper. This is neces-
sarily done before the
drying is quite com-
pleted; and from the
smoothing - rolls it
passes to the second
series of drying cylin-

Fig. 6 is a side view of the machine, and fig. 7 a vertical one. The principle of the machine is very simple; it contains a pulp vat, A (figs. 6 and 7), with a hog or wheel inside to agitate the pulp, and an arrangement for pouring the pulp over the wire-gauze mould, B, B, B, B, which instead of being in single squares, as in the hand-process, is an endless sheet moving round two rollers, a, b, which keep it stretched out and revolving when in operation. Under the part which receives the pulp there is a series of small brass rollers, dders, E (figs. 6 and 7), (fig. 6), these, being nearly close together, keep it where the drying is perfectly level, which is a most necessary condition; finished, and thence besides which, there is a shallow trough, ee (fig. 6), to the calenders, which called the save all, which catches and retains the are polished rollers of water, which always escapes with some pulp in hard cast-iron, SO suspension; and an arrangement of suction boxes adjusted as to give a and tubes, ƒ,ƒ,ƒ (fig. 6), worked by air-pumps, which considerable pressure draw much of the water out as the pulp passes to the paper, and at over them. The pulp is kept from running over the same time a glossithe sides by straps called the deckles, which are ness of surface. For also endless bands, usually of vulcanised India- writing - papers, the rubber, carried round moving rollers, so that they paper passes through travel with the wire-gauze, and therefore offer no a shallow trough of resistance to it. In addition to all this, the frame- size after leaving the work on which the surface of the wire-gauze rests drying cylinders, and

Fig. 6.

PAPER.

then passes over another series of skeleton cylinders, with fans moving inside, by which it is again dried without heat, and afterwards passes through the calenders. Printing and other papers are usually sized by mixing the size in the pulp, in which stage the colouring materials-such as ultramarine for the blue tint of foolscap-are also introdreed. Still following the paper web in the drawing (fig. 6), it is seen to pass from the calenders to another machine, F; this slits the web into widths, which are again cross cut into sheets, the size of which is regulated at will. The water-mark is impressed on machin made paper by means of a fine light-wire cylinder with a wire-woven pattern; this is placed over the wire-gauze sheet upon which the pulp is spread, but near the other end of it, so that the light impression of the marker may act upon the paper just when it ceases to be pulp, and this remains all through its course. There are many other interesting points about the paper-machine, but their introduction here would rather tend to confuse the reader. Its productive power is very great; it moves at a rate of from 30 to 70 feet per minute, spreading pulp, couching, drying, and calendering as it goes, so that the stream of pulp flowing in at one end is in two minutes passing out finished paper at the other. It has been computed that an ordinary machine, making webs of paper 54 inches wide, will turn out four miles a day, and that the total production of all the mills in Britain is not less than 6,000,000 of yards, or 3400 miles daily.

For very obvious reasons, the manufacture of paper has been localised on the banks of streams that afford an abundant supply of pure water for washing and pulping. Kent is celebrated for its paper-mills and for the fine quality of its paper, and is the chief county in this respect. Next follow Hertfordshire (where it was first commenced in England in 1490 by John Tate of Stevenage, of whom it is said in a book printed by Caxton,

Which late hathe in England doo make thya paper thynne,

That now in our Englyssh thys booke is printed inne;

and the same John Tate is mentioned in Henry VII.'s Household Book, under dates May 25, 1498 and 1499, for a rewarde geven at the paper-mylne,' and 'geven in rewarde to Tate of the mylne, 6s. 8d.'), Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, and Lancashire. It was introduced into Scotland in the year 1695, when a company was formed for carrying it on under Articles' signed at a general meeting held in Edinburgh, which articles are now in the Library of the British Museum. It has become a very important branch of manufacture; and not only is paper of a very fine quality made from rags and the new material Esparto, Alfa, or Spanish Grass (the Lygeum Sparteum of botanists), but also the manufacture of paper-machines is carried on most suc cessfully both for foreign and home use. Both of these manufactures are carried on in the immediate neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Since the introduction of the penny postage, penny papers, and other economical measures, especially the abolition of the exciseduty, an enormous impetus has been given to this branch of British manufacture, and considerable difliculty has been found in supplying the makers with raw material: this difficulty has been much increased by the export duties laid by other countries upon the export of rags. The greatest relief has been experienced from improved methods for preparing paper pulp from straw, and from the introduction of the Esparto, which yields half its weight of paper. Of this material English imports in 1869 had risen to about 90,000 tons, which represented 45,000 tons of paper. The British imports of rags have been also very large

PAPER-BOOK-PAPER-HANGINGS.

weights are placed upon it until it is rendered perfectly smooth and flat. Sometimes a number are joined together to increase the size of the sheets. It will be seen that this more nearly resembles the ancient papyrus than modern paper; but it is more beautiful than the former, being a very pure pearly white, and admirably adapted to the peculiar style of painting of the Chinese.

during the last eight years. They are as follows: 1862, 22,130 tons; 1863, 25,520 tons; 1864, 23,888 tous; 1865, 18,368 tons; 1866, 24,403 tons; 1867, 18,548 tons; 1868, 17,902 tons; 1869, 17,021 tons. The manufacture of paper has attained vast dimensions in the United States. In 1860 there were 555 mills, producing 131,508,000 pounds of printing, 22,268,000 pounds of writing, 33,379 tons of wrapping, 8150 tons of straw board, 1,944,000 pounds of The ordinary papers of the Chinese, Japanese, coloured, 91,960 pounds of bank-note, and 3097 tons of and East Indians have much resemblance to each wall paper--a total of 253,778,240 pounds, valued at other, which arises from the manufacture and $21,216,802. The increase of the product over that of material being similar; the bark of the paper 1850 was 108.2 per cent. See the Eighth Census, mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) being chiefly Manufactures, Washington, 1865. Printing-paper used. The Chinese and Japanese are the most is now made on a large scale at Manayunk, Philadel- skilful paper-makers in the world, and some of the phia, from the wood of the tulip poplar (Liriodendron East Indian papers surpass the European manutulipifera) and hemlock spruce (Abies Canadensis); | factures completely. twenty per cent. of straw pulp is introduced.

Some useful kinds of paper are the result of The following are the principal varieties of ordi- manipulations subsequent to the paper-maker's nary paper, and the sizes of the sheets given in work. Thus : inches:

1. Writing and Printing Papers.-Pot (so named from its original water-mark, a tankard), 12 by 15; Double Pot, 15 by 25. Foolscap, 16 by 13; Sheet-and-third Do., 22 by 131; Sheet-and-half Do., 221 by 131; Double Do., 27 by 17. Post (so called from its use in letter-writing; one of its original water-marks was a postman's horn), 18 by 154; Large Do., 20 by 16; Medium Do., 18 by 22; Double Do., 30 by 19. Copy, 20 by 16. Double Crown, 20 by 30. Demy, 20 by 15; Printing Do., 221 by 17; Medium Do., 22 by 171; Medium Printing Do., 23 by 18. Royal, 24 by 19; Printing Do., 25 by 20; Super-royal, 27 by 19; Super-royal Printing, 21 by 27. Imperial, 30 by 22. Atlas, 34 by 26. Columbier, 34 by 23. Elephant, 28 by 23; Double Do., 263 by 40. Antiquarian, 53 by 31: this is generally, if not always, hand-made.

These sizes are somewhat lessened by ploughing and finishing off the edges previous to sale.

2. Coarse Papers for wrapping and other purposes.—Kent-cap, 21 by 18; Bag-cap, 191 by 24; Havon-cap, 21 by 16; Imperial-cap, 22 by 29. Double 2-lb., 17 by 24; Double 4-lb., 21 by 31; Double 6-lb., 19 by 28. Cartridge, Casing, and Middle-hand, &c., 21 by 16. Lumber-hand, 19 by 221; Royal-hand, 20 by 25; Double Small-hand, 19 by 29.

Purple papers of a soft texture, unsized, are used in very large quantities by sugar-refiners, of the following sizes: Copy-loaf, 163 by 21; Powderloaf, 18 by 26; Double-loaf, 16 by 23; Single-loaf, 214 by 27; Lump, 23 by 33; Hambro', 16 by 23; Titler, 29 by 35; Prussian, or Double Lump, 32 by

42.

Blotting and Filtering Paper.-This is unsized paper, made of good quality, and usually coloured pink or red, and of the same size as demy.

Even as regards materials, varieties are endless. In an old German book by Jacob Christian Schäffers, published at Regensburg in 1772, there are no less than eighty-one samples of different kinds of paper beand up and forming part of the book, and innumerable others have been made since.

Rice paper is a beautiful material imported from China, about which numberless errors have been written. It is now known to be formed of thin slices of the pith of the plant called Aralia papyrifera. This pith can be obtained from the stems in beautiful cylinders, from one to two inches in diameter, and several inches in length. The Chinese workmen apply the blade of a sharp, straight knife to these cylinders of pith, and, turning them round dexterously, pare them from the circumference to the centre, making a rolled layer of equal thickness throughout. This is unrolled, and

Lithographic Paper is prepared from good printing-paper by laying on one side of the sheets a preparation consisting of six parts of starch, one of alum, and two of gum-arabic dissolved in warm water, and applied whilst hot with a proper brush. Generally a little gamboge is added, to give it a slight yellow colour.

Copying Paper, for manifold-writers, is made by applying a composition of lard and black-lead to one side or both of sheets of writing-paper; and after leaving it on for a day or so, it is carefully and smoothly scraped off and wiped with a soft cloth.

Tracing Paper is good printing-paper rendered transparent by brushing it over with a mixture of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine, or nut oil and turpentine. In either case it must be carefully dried before using.

There are two distinct classes of coloured papers. In one, the colour is introduced into the pulp, and is consequently in the body of the paper; in the other, the colours are mixed with size, and applied to the surface. There have been many ingenious and tasteful inventions for decorating the surface of paper, such as by giving it a marbled and even a beautiful iridescent appearance, but they are too numerous for the limits of this article.

Paper is subject to much adulteration. Chinaclay and gypsum are generally used for the white sorts, and the heavy ferruginous ochres for the coarse and brown kinds.

PAPER-BOOK, in English Law, is the name given to the pleadings on both sides in an action at law, when the issue is one, not of fact, but of law.

PAPER-HANGINGS. This name is applied to the webs of paper, papiers peints of the French, usually decorated, with which interior walls are often covered. Previous to the invention of the paper-machine, sheets of paper of the size called Elephant, 22 by 32 inches, were pasted together, to make 12 yard lengths, before the pattern was imprinted; but this is now rendered unnecessary by the facility of making webs of any length. Upon the paper it is usual first to spread a ground-colour, with proper brushes, taking care to produce a perfectly smooth surface. The colours employed are opaque, and are mixed with size, and sometimes also with starch, and most of the ordinary pigments are used. In the early stages of the art, it was usual to have the patterns stencilled (see STENCILLING) on the ground-colour. The stencilling plates were usually pieces of pasteboard, one being required for every differently-coloured portion of the pattern. Afterwards, wooden blocks were adopted, similar to those used in calico-printing, made of pear or poplar wood, generally the width of the paper,

PAPER MULBERRY-PAPIAS.