OYSTER. devoted to oysters; and oyster-culture has never ceased to be practised in Italy, although to an inconsiderable extent, and particularly in Lake Fusaro, the Acheron of Virgil, a muddy saltwater pond nowhere more than two yards deep. In Britain, it has also long been practised to some extent, particularly on the coasts of Kent and Essex, for the supply of the London market. There can be no doubt, however, that this branch of industry is capable of vast development, and that many thousands of acres along the British coasts might be profitably occupied in the production of oysters, which might become, far more than hitherto, a common article of food. The subject has recently received much attention from the French government, and most successful experiments have been made, not only by the government, but also by private individuals. The shores of the Isle of Ré have within these few years been in great part converted into oyster-beds, the successful enterprise of an old soldier having led many of his neighbours to follow his example, so that now more than 3000 men are employed in oyster-culture in that island alone. left dry by the retiring tide. In the latter kind of situations, they instinctively keep their valves closed when the water deserts them. It is in such situations that oyster-culture can be most easily and profitably carried on. Our space will not admit of details, which we would gladly give. Various methods are adopted of preparing the artificial oyster-bed, by providing suitable solid objects for the oysters to attach themselves to. Stones are piled together, and in such a way that there are many open spaces among them; stakes are driven into the mud or sand; bundles of small sticks are fastened to stones or stakes; floors of planks are formed, at a little height above the bottom, with alleys between them, the under surface of the planks being roughened by the adze; and tiles are arranged in various ways, so as to turn to account the whole space at the disposal of the oystercultivator as high as the ordinary tides reach. method must be varied in accordance with the situation, and the probable violence of winds and waves; but sheltered situations are best in all respects; and experience in France seems to prove, that tiles covered with cement are preferable to The accompanying figure represents a piece of wood with oysters attached to it of different ages. Those marked A, are from twelve to fourteen months old; those marked B, are five or six months; those marked C, are three or four months; those marked D, are one or two months; those marked E, from fifteen to twenty days. Oysters live equally well in situations where they are constantly under water, and in those which are The everything that has yet been tried as convenient for the cultivator, presenting a surface to which oysters readily attach themselves, and from which they can easily be removed, whilst the larger seaweeds do not grow on it so readily as on stones or wood. By the use of tiles, covered with cement, the cultivator is also able easily to remove young oysters from breeding-grounds to feeding-grounds; the best breeding-grounds being by no means those in which the oyster most rapidly attains its greatest size, and that greenish tinge which Parisian epicures so much desire to see, and which is owing to the abundant confervæ and green monads of quiet muddy waters.-It has been long known that the oysters of particular localities are finer than those produced elsewhere. Nowhere, perhaps, are finer oysters produced than on some parts of the British coasts. Those of Rutupiceæ, now Richborough, in Kent, were highly esteemed by the Romans, whose epicurism in oysters exceeded that of modern nations. The species of O. most esteemed in the United States are the 0. Virginiana, or Chesapeake O., and the O. borealis, or the New York O. The first is distinguished by its narrow elongated shell, gradually widening, with a long or pointed beak at the apex, and rounded at the other extremity. The surface presents leaf-like scales of a leaden colour. It often measures 12 to 15 inches in length, but is seldom more than 3 inches in breadth. The shell of O. borcalis is somewhat obliquely rounded, ovate, usually curved, the beak never greatly prolonged, the surface very irregular, with loosely arranged flakes of a greenish colour, the margins more or less plaited or scclloped. It grows to a great size, and may reach 6 inches in breadth. The New York oyster was once abundant in Massachusetts Bay, but died out in 1780. It still occurs in great abundance near Sandwich, Buzzard's Bay. The O. of the Atlantic coast are believed by some authorities to be out forms of one species. A large trade in O. has sprung up in the United States, the consumption having reached an enormous OYSTERS-OZENA. amount. That of Baltimore, for 1860, exclusive of the local trade, was estimated at $3,500,000, and that of the whole Chesapeake Bay at upwards of $20,000,000. An aggregate of 10,000,000 bushels is taken from the beds of Maryland annually. These beds extend over 373 square miles, and afford profitable employment to 10,000 men. The O. trade in the Delaware Bay is very valuable, and is estimated at about $3,000,000. Oysters are grown chiefly on the shores of Cumberland and Cape May counties, N. J., and extend over 10,000 acres, known as Maurice River Cove. The total O. trade, from Maine to Texas, has been valued at $50,000,000 annually. Fossil Oysters.--A single species occurs in the Carboniferous Limestone, and as we rise in the crust of the earth, the genus becomes more and more common, the earth, the genus becomes more and more common, no less than 200 species having been recorded, many of them scarcely distinguishable from the living species. The sub-genus Gryphaa was a free shell, with a large thick left valve and small concave right valve. Thirty species have been found in beds of the Oolite and Chalk periods. In the same beds there occurs another form of Ostrea with subspiral reversed umbones, to which the subgeneric name Exogyra has been given. Forty species of this form have been described. ties unless the O. shall be of a size that a bushel will Oyster-catcher (Hæmatopus ostralegus). OYSTERS, LAW AS TO. By the law of the state of New Jersey, enacted April 14, 1846, section (1) prohibits raking or gathering oysters or shells on any bank or beds from the first day of May until the first day of September annually, under a penalty of ten dollars, and (2) any person dredging for O., or on board any vessel employed in raking with a dredge, is liable to a penalty of fifty dollars, except residents of the state fishing in Delaware Bay. (4) Persons selling or offering O. for sale in the state during the above term shall forfeit and pay five dollars. (5) Forbids to rake or gather oysters for burning or for industrial uses, under penalty of fifty dollars. (7) Forbids nonresidents, or those who have not been residents for six months, to rake or gather clams, oysters, &c., under penalty of twenty dollars fine, and forfeiture of the vessel and furniture, &c. so engaged. By supplement to the law, March 19, 1851, the penalty was increased to fine or imprisonment, or both, the fine not to exceed $150, or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months. (10) Active resistance to officers or other persons seizing the said vessel renders the party liable to a fine of thirty dollars. (11) Owners of meadows, species, and is common on all parts of the British ditches, &c., where O. will grow, and not used as pub-coasts, on those of continental Europe, the north of lic landings, may plant O., and preserve them by erecting a fence, gates, or locks, to prevent the entrance of other persons, and (12) any person found therein with any craft, without permission from the owner or occupant, or who shall break or destroy the fence, gate, &c., shall forfeit fifty dollars; but the free navigation of any thoroughfare to any accustomed landing-place shall not be impeded. By sup., 1851, the penalty was increased to fine or imprisonment, or both, the imprisonment not to exceed 6 months, nor fine $100. (13-18) Permit owners of coves, flats, &c., to mark out and stake the boundaries of their beds of planted oysters within the bounds of ordinary low water mark. (19) The time within which the taking and vending O. is prohibited, is extended to the first day of October in every year in the counties of Burlington and Monmouth and Atlantic; but planted oysters may be taken up at any time by the person owning them. (20) Prohibits the removal of its shells from any natural oyster-bed not planted, under penalty of ten dollars. Supplement, March 31, 1864, (30) Prohibits taking O. from their natural beds in the counties of Burlington, Atlantic, and Ocean between the first day of May and sunrise of the first day of October, and during the first ten days of October only by daylight, under a penalty of $25. (31) Prohibits toking O, in the waters of Ocean and Burlington coun Africa, and of the north of Asia. Its whole length is about 16 inches. Its finely-contrasted black and white colours have gained it the name of SEA PIE. It is most abundant on the sea-coast, but often visits inland regions, and sometimes breeds in them. It does not make a nest, but lays its eggs-usually four-on the shingly beach or bare ground. On some of the sandy flat coasts of Lincolnshire, the O. is so abundant, that a bushel of the eggs have been collected in a morning by a single fisherman. The American O. is a bird of passage, deserting the northern regions in winter. It is rather larger than the European species, and differs from it in colours, and in greater length and slenderness of bill. OZÆ'NA (from the Gr. ozo, I smell) signifies a discharge of foetid, purulent, or sanious matter from the nostrils. It is a symptom rather than a disease, and may arise from ulceration of the membrane lining the nostrils, or from caries of the adjacent bones, and may accompany syphilitic, scorbutic, scrofulous, or cancerous affections of these or adjacent parts. A slighter form of ozæna sometimes follows chronic coryza (or cold in the head), malignant scarlatina, and erysipelas of the face. The discharge is seldom accompanied by acute pain, unless when caused by cancer; OZÆNA-OZONE. sometimes, however, an aching is complained of. The prognosis must depend upon the nature of the disease, of which the discharge is a symptom. The treatment may be divided into the general or constitutional, and the local. The general treatment should consist of tonics combined with alteratives, as the preparations of bark with the alkalies, or with the mineral acids; a dry, bracing air, or a temporary removal to the seaside, is also usually of service. If the discharge arises from syphilis or scurvy, the treatment suitable to those diseases should be prescribed. The local treatment consists in the inhalation, once or twice a day, of the steam of boiling water, to which a little creosote or carbolic acid has been added; and in more severe cases, in the thorough syringing of the nostrils, so as to wash away all collections of matter with a copious stream of warm water, to which a little chloride of zinc has been added (about 30 minims of Burnett's solution to half a pint of water). in a gaseous form) is produced in the electrolysis of water; and that ozone, from whatever source obtained, is the same body; and is not a compound, but an allo tropic form of oxygen. Schönbein has more recently tried to shew that whenever ozone is produced, another remarkable body (called antozone) is also produced; and that these are simply oxygen in different electrical states. The facts on which these ideas are founded are, however, capable of other explanations. In 1860, Andrews and Tait published the results of a series of volumetric experiments on this subject, which led to some remarkable conclusions-among which are the following: When the electric discharge is passed through pure oxygen, it contracts. If ozone be oxygen in an allotropic form, it must therefore be denser than oxygen. It was found also that a much greater amount of contraction, and a correspondingly greater quantity of ozone, were produced by a silent discharge of electricity between fine points, than by a brilliant series of sparks. The contraction due to the formation of the ozone is entirely removed by the destruction of the ozone by heat; and this process can be repeated indefinitely on the same portion of oxygen. OʻZONE (Gr. ozo, I smell). It was remarked long ago that a peculiar odour was produced by the work ing of an electrical machine. Van-Marum found that, when electric sparks were passed through a tube containing oxygen, the gas became powerfully In attempting to determine the density of ozone, impregnated with this odour-which he therefore they used various bodies to take up the ozone from called the smell of electricity.' Subsequent writers the oxygen containing it; and met with many very attributed the phenomenon to the formation of curious results. Thus, if mercury be introduced, it nitric acid, due to a trace of nitrogen mixed with is immediately attacked and oxidised, and yet the the oxygen; especially as the gas was found to act oxygen increases in volume. If iodine be employed, energetically upon mercury. Thus supposed to be it is immediately oxidised, and no change of volume explained, these curious results were soon forgotten. is observed, though the apparatus would have at But in 1840, Schönbein (q. v.) with remarkable once rendered visible a change to the amount of acuteness, made a closer investigation of the ques-ooooth of the bulk of the oxygen. By measuring tion, and arrived at many most curious results, the contraction produced by electricity in the which have not even yet been satisfactorily accounted for. The problem remains, in fact, one of the most perplexing, as well as interesting, questions unsolved in chemistry. The earlier results of Schönbein were as follow: (1.) When water is decomposed by the voltaic current, the electrodes being of gold or platinum, the oxygen (which appears at the positive pole) possesses in a high degree the smell and the oxidising power developed by Van-Marum by means of friction-electricity. (2.) When the positive electrode is formed of an oxidisable metal, these results are not observed, but the electrode is rapidly oxidised. (3.) The oxygen collected at a platinum electrode retains these properties for an indefinite period, if kept in a closed vessel; but loses them by heating, by the contact of an oxidisable substance, and even by contact with such bodies as charcoal and oxide of manganese. To the substance, whatever it may be, which possesses such powerful chemical affinities, Schönbein gave the name ozone, from its pecu liar smell. In 1845, he shewed that the same substance can be produced by the action of phosphorus on moist air; and suggested that it might be a higher oxide of hydrogen. De la Rive and Marignac shortly afterwards, repeating the experiments of Van-Marum, shewed that electric sparks produce ozone even in pure and dry oxygen; and came to the conclusion, that ozone is oxygen in an allotropic state, as diamond is a form of coke or charcoal. oxygen, then the effect of introducing a solution of iodide of potassium, and determining the amount of oxygen taken up from the quantity of iodine set free, Andrews and Tait shewed that the density of ozone, if it be allotropic oxygen, must be practically infinite -i. e., that ozone must have the density of a liquid or a solid at least, although existing in the gaseous form. This conclusion is inevitable, unless we make the very improbable assumption, that when iodine, &c., are exposed to ozone, exactly one half of the ozone combines with the iodine, and the other half is restored to the form of oxygen. The paper from whose statements we have quoted concludes with a suggestion that it is possible that, in the formation of ozone, oxygen may be decomposed. This is, of course, contrary to all the received notions of chemistry-but such a supposition would at once reconcile all the apparently contradictory facts connected with this singular body. Soret and Von Babo have recently repeated and verified a few of these results; but in spite of the wonderful sagacity of Schönbein, and the laborious experimental inquiries of many chemists, the nature of ozone is still utterly unknown. It is not even proved that ozone exists in the atmosphere, except as the immediate result of electricity, though of late years the attention of meteorologists has been directed to the effect which is (almost invariably, and sometimes in fine weather powerfully) produced by the air on what are called ozone-test-papers, the best of which is probably Houzeau's, a litmus paper slightly reddened and impregnated with iodide Baumert, in 1853, endeavoured to shew that there of potassium, which turns blue in the presence of are two kinds of ozone-one formed from pure ozone by the production of potassium and separation oxygen by electric sparks, which he allowed to be of iodine. The experiments of M. Houzeau indicate allotropic oxygen; the other formed in the voltaic that ozone cannot exist in the atmosphere of a crowded decomposition of water, which he endeavoured to city or in a badly ventilated room. The invigorating prove to be a teroxide of hydrogen (HO,). But nature of country air, and that of the mountains and Andrews, in 1856, completely refuted this view, by the sea-side, is believed to be due to the presence of shewing that no such oxide of hydrogen (at least | ozone, or modified oxygen. P THE sixteenth letter of the English and other western European alphabets, was in Hebrew called Pe, i. e., mouth, and was most likely, in its original form, a rude sketch of a mouth. P is the thin letter of the labial series (p, b, f, v) and is interchangeable with the other letters of the series. P, in Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin, is replaced by f in the Teutonic tongues. See F. Words beginning with p in English, and its kindred Teutonic tongues, are almost all of foreign origin (Slavic, Celtic, Latin), as pain (Fr. peine, Lat. pena), plough (Pol. plug), pit (Lat. puteus, a well). The Greek prep. apo (Sans. apa) became in Lat. ab; Gr. hupo, Lat. sub; Sans. upa, Lat. ob; but before sharp letters, as t and s, the original p was retained in pronunciation, as is shewn by inscriptions (apstulit, optinui). There are remarkable interchanges of p with the sharp guttural k or q. Thus, for Lat. quis, quod, quam, the Oscan dialect had pis, pod, pam; Lat. equus, coquo, corresponded to Gr. hippos (Eol. hikkos), pepo; similarly, Gaelic mac (son), ceathair (Lat. quatuor, four), coig (Lat. quinque, five), correspond to Welsh map, pedwar (Gr. pettores), pump (Gr. pente or pempe). In Gr., p is sometimes replaced by t, as tis, tessares, for pis, pettores. In such words as redemption, consumption, p has been introduced as an intermediary between the incompatible sounds m and t. The initial p of Latin words has for the most part passed into French unaltered; in other positions, p has become v; thus, Fr. évêque, cheveu, décevoir, pauvre, from Lat. episcopus, capillus, decipere, pauper. PA'CA (Coelogenys), a genus of rodent quadrupeds, allied to the agoutis, cavies, and capybara, and inhabiting Brazil, Guiana, and some of the West India Islands. The dentition very nearly resembles that of the agoutis. The cheek-bones are prodigiously developed, in a way of which no example exists in any other mammalian animal, so that the zygomatic arches enclose a large hollow space, whilst the bone also descends to an unusual depth from the arch, even below the lower jawbone. Within this structure, which gives an extraordinary breadth and peculiar aspect to the face, is a sac in each cheek, opening in front, and lined with a fold of the skin of the face. The whole of this seems to be intended to preserve the true cheekpouches from external shocks. The cheek-pouches open from the mouth in the usual way, and are capable of very great distention. The lip is cloven; the ears are small; the eyes are large and full; the neck is short; the tail is a mere tubercle; the feet have each five toes; the legs are thick; the back is rounded. The form and gait are clumsy, yet the P. (C. paca) is very quick and active. It lives in moist grounds, burrowing like the rabbit, but not so deeply; its burrow, however, is always provided with three rpenings. It feeds on vegetable substances, and often does great damage to plantations of sugarIt is one of the largest rodents, being about two feet long. It is generally of a dark brown cane colour, with four rows of white spots along the sides, the throat and belly white. A lightercoloured species has been described, but is perhaps a mere variety. The flesh of the P. is much esteemed, and is very fat. PACAY (Prosopis dulcis), a tree of the natural order Leguminosa, sub-order Mimoseœ; a native of Peru, of rather large size, with a broad head; producing pods from twenty inches to two feet long, which contain black seeds imbedded in a sweet flaky substance as white as snow. This flaky substance is used as an article of food and much relished by the Peruvians. PACE (Lat. passus), in its modern acceptation, is the distance, when the legs are extended in walking, between the heel of one foot and that of the other. Among disciplined men the pace becomes of constant length, and as such is of the utmost value in determining military movements, the relative distances of corps and men being fixed by the number of paces marched, and so on. The pace in the British army is 24 feet for ordinary marching, and 3 feet for double-quick' or running time. With the Romans, the pace had a different signification, and it is important to bear the distinction in mind, when reading of distances in Latin works; the single extension of the legs was not with them a pace, (passus), but a step (gradus) ; their pace (passus) being the interval between the mark of a heel and the next mark of the same heel, or a double step. This pace was equivalent to 4.84 English feet. The pace was the Roman unit in itinerary measure; the mile being 1000 paces, or 5000 Roman feet, equal to 917 of an English mile. See MILE. Whether measurements were effected by actually counting the paces, or by the time occupied, is not clear; but either method would, with disciplined troops, give a safe result. In the middle ages, writers confuse accounts of distances by allusion to a geometrical pace, a measure which varied with different authors. PACHO'MIUS, an Egyptian monk of the 4th c., is held in high estimation by the Roman Catholic church, as being the first to substitute for the free asceticism of the solitary recluse, a regular cœnobitic system. He was born towards the close of the 3d c., was brought up as a pagan, but converted to Christianity by the kindness of certain Christians whom he encountered at Thebes. About 340 A. D., at Tabenna, an island in the Nile, he founded the first monastic institution. The members agreed to follow certain rules of life and conduct drawn up by P., and to subject themselves to his control and visitation. He also established the first convent for nuns, which was under the presidency of his sister, and laboured with so much diligence and zeal, that at his death, according to Palladius, not fewer than 7000 monks and nuns were under his inspection. The various writings extant under the name of P. are-Regula Monastica (of doubtful genuineness), Monita, SS. PP. Pachomii et Theodori, PACHYDERMATA-PACIFIC OCEAN. Epistolæ et Verba Mystica (a farrago of unintelligible is found in the common hog. PACHYDE'RMATA (Gr. thick-skins), in the system of Cuvier, an order of Mammalia, including part of the Bruta (Rhinoceros, Elephant), and all the Belluce (Horse, Hippopotamus, Tapir, Hog, &c.) of Linnæus, besides one genus (Hyrax or Daman) of the Linnæan Glires. It has been often described as less natural than any other of Cuvier's mammalian orders, as it consists of animals among which there are wide diversities, and the associating characters are rather negative than positive; but it is now universally received by naturalists as indicating a real, though not a close affinity; and when we extend our view from existing to fossil species, numerous connecting links present themselves. As defined by Cuvier, the order consists of those hoofed mammalia (Ungulata) which are not ruminants; all of which possess, as a more positive character, a remarkable thickness of skin. This order he divides into three sections-(1.) Proboscidea, having a prolonged snout or proboscis, through which the nostrils pass as elongated tubes, a powerful organ of prehension, and a delicate organ of touch, and having also five toes on each foot, enclosed in a very firm horny skin; (2.) Ordinaria, destitute of proboscis, although in some (Tapirs), there is such an elongation of the upper lip and nostrils as approximates to it; and the nose is employed by hogs, &c., in seeking their food, not only as an organ of smell, but as an instrument for turning up the ground, and as an organ of touch; the number of toes varies, four, three, or two on each foot; those with an even number of toes, having in the cleft foot a resemblance to the Ruminantia; and (3.) Solidungula, in which the foot has but one apparent toe, enclosed in a hoof. Some naturalists have thought it better to separate the Solidungula or Equida (q. v.) from the P., as a distinct order; whilst others have enlarged instead of restricting the limits of the order, by adding, as a fourth section, the Herbivorous Cetacea. Those P. which have a number of toes differ completely from the mammalia having claws (Unguiculata) in their inability to bend their toes in order to seize any object. Some of the Edentata have very large hoof-like claws, but this difference still subsists. The fore-limbs of the P. are also incapable of any rotatory motion, serving for support and locomotion only, not at all for prehension; the metatarsal and metacarpal bones being consolidated as in the Ruminantia, and they have no clavicles. The largest terrestrial mammalia belong to this order. Most of the P. are of large size, although the damans are a remarkable exception, and some of the hog family are also comparatively small. Most of thein have a clumsy form, with a slow and awkward gait; but they are capable of activity beyond what might be supposed, and sometimes move at a pretty rapid pace. Gracefulness and fleetness are characteristics of the otherwise exceptional Solidungula. The P. Ordinaria have generally great strength, and the larger ones push their way through the entangled thickets of tropical forests, bending or breaking the lianas, small trees, and branches which oppose their progress, their thick hides resisting the spines and broken branches by which the skins of other animals would be pierced. The horse and other Solidungula are not inhabitants of forests and jungles, but generally of grassy plains, and their hides are much less thick and hard than those of most of the Pachydermata. When enraged, however, they manifest their fierceness in their eyes; and although, in general, mild and gentle, they are capable of being aroused to great fury. The skeleton of the P. Ordinaria and Proboscidea is strong and massive; the neck short, the processes of its vertebræ strongly developed; the skull affording a large surface for the muscles which support and move it. The The P. generally feed on vegetable substances. Some are omnivorous. The digestive organs are more simple than in the Ruminantia, but exhibit considerable diversity. The stomach is simple in some, and in others is more or less completely divided into sacs, approaching to one of the most remarkable characters of the Ruminantia. intestines are generally longer than in the Ruminantia. The dentition exhibits considerable diversity; the adaptation to vegetable food being the most prevalent character. The most important peculiarities of the dentition and digestive organs are noticed in the articles on particular families and genera. PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest of the five great Oceans (see OCEAN), lies between America on the east, and Asia, Malaisia, and Australasia on the west. The name 'Pacific,' given to it by Magellan, the first European navigator who traversed its wide expanse, is doubtless very appropriate to certain portions of this ocean; but, as a whole, its special claims. to the epithet are at the least doubtful, though the name has by long usage become too well established to be easily supplanted by any other. The greatest length of the P. O. from the Arctic (at Behring's Strait) to the Antarctic circles is 9200 miles, and its greatest breadth, along the parallel of latitude 5° N., about 10,300 miles; while its area may be roughly estimated at 80,000,000 English square miles, or about ths of the whole surface of the earth. Its form is rhomboidal, with one corner incomplete (at the south), and its surface is studded with numberless islands, either scattered or in groups; these, however, are chiefly confined to the western side, and to the limits of 30° N. lat. and 30° S. lat., where the depth of the ocean is not great. Along the whole eastern side, from Behring's Strait to Cape Horn, there is a belt of sea of varying width, which, with a very few exceptions, is wholly free from islands. The coasts of the P. O. present a general resemblance to those of the Atlantic, and the similarity in the outline of the western coasts of each is even striking, especially north of the equator; but the shores of the former, unlike those of the latter, are sinuous, and, excepting the north-east coast of Asia, little indented with inlets. The shore on the American side is bold and rocky, while that of Asia varies much in character. Though the P. O. is by far the largest of the five great oceans, being about equal to the other four in extent, the proportion of land drained into it is comparatively insignificant. Its basin includes only the narrow strip of the American continent to the west of the Andes and Rocky Mountains; Melanesia, with the exception of almost the whole of Australia, which contains few rivers, and none of them of large size; the Indo-Chinese states, China Proper, with the east part of Mongolia, and Maschuria in the Asiatic continent. Winds. The trade-winds of the Pacific have certain peculiarities, which have only lately been discovered. In general, they are not found to preserve their peculiar characteristics except within The physiognomy of the P. in general is rather certain limits, thus, the south-east trades dull and unexpressive, the eyes being small, and found to blow steadily only between 92° and 140° having that character of which a familiar example of west longitude; while the north-east trades are |