CHAPTER II.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

RELIGION.---GOVERNMENT. LAWS. POPULATION. ARMY. POLI

TICAL IMPORTANCE AND RELATIONS.

Religion. THE religion most universally diffused in this part of Asia, is what has been called Shamanism, or the belief in a supreme author of nature, who governs the universe by the agency of numerous inferior spirits of great power. The Kalkas were accustomed to acknowledge a living Lama, or great spirit embodied; a form of superstition which will be better illustrated in the account of Tibet*.

Government. The government was formerly monarchical, with a strong mixture of aristocracy, and even of democracy. At present, it is conducted by princes, who pay homage to the Chinese empire, and receive Chinese titles of honour; but many of the ancient forms are yet retained. Though writing be not unknown among the Monguls, yet the laws appear to be chiefly traditional.

Population. Of the population of these regions it is difficult to form any precise ideas. As the numerous tribes subject to Russia, are found, under splendid appellations, to present but a slender number of individuals, not exceeding two or three millions, it may perhaps be reasonable to infer, that amidst the wide deserts and barren mountains of central Asia, there do not inhabit above six millions.

A proper enumeration would indeed depend upon authentic inquiries into the state of the various tribes. The country of the Mandshurs is, by the Chinese, divided into three great governments. 1. That of

Chinyang, comprising Leaodong, surrounded, in part, by a strong barrier of wood. The chief town is Chinyang, also called Mugden by the Mandshurs, stilt a considerable place, with a mausoleum of Kunchi, regarded as the conqueror of China, and the founder of the reigning familyf. 2. The government of Kiren-Oula, which extends far to the north-cast, where there are many forests and deserts on both sides of the great river Sagalien. Kirem, the capital, stands on the river Songari, which falls into the Sagalien or Amur, and was the residence of the Mandshur general, who acted as viceroy. 3. The government of Tsitchicar, so called, from a town recently {bunded on the Nonni Oula, where a Chinese garrison is stationed. The Russians call this province Daouria, from the tribe Tagouri, who possess a great part of this

*A curious account of the -eligion of the Monguls may be found in the sixth volume of the Dccouvcrtes Russes. The gelluvgI or priest* arc the gylongs oi Tibet, and the other features seem to corresponn.

La Croix, ii. 221.

Du Halde, iv. 7.

territory. The western boundary is the river Argoon, the frontier between Russia and China is also marked in the treaty by another river, the Kerbctchi, which seems to have vanished from recent maps. These provinces having been the seat of the Mandshur monarchy before the conquest of China, have since that event remained subject to their ancient sovereigns.

In this division may also be named Corea, which has for many centuries acknowledged the authority of China, and which boasts a considerable population. The language, according to Du Halde, differs from the Chinese, and from what he calls the Tataric, probably the Mandshur. That writer may be consulted for a more particular account of this extensive province; the geography of which still remains rather doubtful.

To the west arc various tribes of Monguls; as the Kalkas; those around Koko Nor, or the Blue Lake, who are also called Oelcts, Eluts, or Kalmuks, the terms only implying particular Mongul branches. The Eluts have been greatly reduced by two destructive wars against the Chinese, in 1720 and 1757; and their contaisch, or great chau, has disappeared. Their country may be considered under three divisions. 1. That part called Gete even to the time of Timur, which some regard as the country of the ancient Massagetx, towards the lakes of Palkati, Balkash or Tengis, and Xaizan. The contaisch used chiefly to reside at Harcas or Erga, on the river Ili, which flows from the south-east, into the lake of Balkash. 2. Little Bucharia, so culled to distinguish it from the Greater Bucharia, which is subject to the Usbecks, a Tataric nation; but the people of Little Bucharia are an industrious race of distinct origin, who are little mingled with their Kalmuk or Mongul lords. 3. The countries of Turfan to the north of the lake called Lok Nor, and that of Chamil or Hami to the east, regions little known, and surrounded with wide deserts. Upon the whole, it may perhaps be found, that the Mandshurs are the most populous race; and that the Monguls, though diffused through a vast territory, can hardly boast the name of a nation. The Kirguses, or Tatars proper of the west, are confined to a small and unfertile district; and may more properly be considered as belonging to Independent Tatary.

Army. It is probable that this part of the Chinese empire might muster a large but ineffectual army; and amidst modern tactics and weapons little needs be apprehended from a new deluge of Mongul barbarians. If the various tribes of Mandshurs, Monguls, and Tatars were to coalese under some chief of great abilities, the political importance and relations of central Asia might resume their former Line; but their interests are now so various and discordant, that while the empires of Russia and China exist, they can only be regarded as connected with the policy of these powerful states.

See remarUs on the geography of the^e coun'ries in the account of Great Bucharia. Turfan is commonly included in Litile uucharia; ana Gete is ihs Soongaria of the Russians. Soongxria means the left hand, as those tribes adoring towards the cast, call Tibet Barontaia, or the region on the right.

CHAPTER III.

CIVIL GEOGRAPHY.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.—LANGUAGE.-LITERATURE.--CITIES AND TOWNS. MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE.

Manners Ann Customs. THE manners and customs of the Monguls have been already briefly described in the account of Asiatic Russia. Du Halde observes that these wandering nations " appear always contented, and free from care; of a happy temper, and a gay humour, always disposed to laughter, never thoughtful, never melancholy." And he adds " what reason can they have to be so? they have neither neighbours to please, nor enemies to fear, nor great people to court; and are free from difficult business, or constrained occupation, delighting themselves only in the chace, in fishing, and various exercises in which they are very skilful*."

The Mandshurs, who here deserve particular notice, are little distinguishable in their manners from the Monguls. By the account of the Jesuits, they have no temples, nor idols, but worship a supreme being, whom they style emperor of heaven. But probably their real creed is Shamanism, or a kind of rational polytheism, not unknown td the Jews, who admitted, as appears from Daniel, great angels or spirits, as protectors of empires. Of the three grand nations perhaps the Mandshurs may be regarded as approaching the nearest to civilization, especially since their conquest of China: and their advancement must have been greater, since the late emperor ordered the best Chinese books to be translated into the Mandshur language. Yet the Chinese retain great antipathy against their conquerors, whom they despise as a filthy race of savages. The Mandshurs are of a more robust form, with countenances less expressive; and the feet of their women are not disfigured like those of the Chinese. The head dress of this sex consists of natural and artificial flowers. The general raiment is the same as the Chinesef.

Language. The three languages of the Mandshurs, Monguls, and Tatars, radically differ from each other. M. Langles published at Paris, about ten years ago, a prospectus of an intended dictionary of the Mandshur language, in which he pronounces it the most learned and perfect of the Tataric idioms, not excepting that of Tibet, though not written till the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the monarch charged some literati to design letters after those of the Monguls. nearly resembling those of the Ugurs, which, to the eye of M. L adles seemed to spricg from the Stranghelo, or ancient Syriac.

* Du Halde, iv. 32.

† Stauntoa, . 358.

Yet from the account of this author, it appears, that the Mandshur grammar presents 1500 groups of syllables, which he has analysed into twenty-nine letters; of which the greater part have three forms, as they happen to appear, in the beginning, middle, or end of a word.

Literature. Of the native literature of the 'Mandshurs, little is known, except that a code of laws was drawn up by the order of one of the monarchs, prior, it is believed, to the conquest of China. The imported literature, by the translation of Chinese works, must be considerable.

Cities Ann Towns. This extensive portion of Asia contains several cities and towns, generally constructed of wood, and of little antiquity or duration. These shall be briefly mentioned, passing from the west towards the east.

In Little Bucharia appear the cities of Cashgar, Yarkand, Kotun, and Karia. Cashgar was formerly a remarkable town, giving name to a considerable kingdom, the limits of which nearly corresponded with Little Bucharia*. This town though fallen from its ancient splendor, still retains some commerce. Yarkand stands on a river of the same name, which, after a long easterly course, falls into the lake of Lopf. Turfan, the capital of a detached principality, is a considerable town, which used to be frequented by the merchants passing from Persia to China. Hami, Chami, or according to others Chamil, gives name to a small district, in the immense desert of Cobi, and according to Du Halde, is a small but populous placet. Some towns occur further to ihe south, but seemingly are only usual stations for tents, the Monguls preferring the nomadic life.

The ancient city of Karakum has vanished, as already mentioned: but to the east of the great desert, and near the frontiers of China, several Mongul town appear in the maps. Coucou seems to be the Couchan of Du Halde, a small town seated on a hill near a river which falls into the Hoan-ho. The others are yet more inconsiderable.

The country of the Mandshurs contains many villages and cities, as Hotun Sagaliun Oula, so called from its position on that river, in the country of the Tahouria, modernized Daouria; likewise Tsilchikarf already mentioned, with Merguen, Petouna, Kirin Oula, and Ningouta. On the north and east of the great river Amur scarcely the vestige of a village appears. Of those here enumerated Petouna or Pedne, was, in the time of Du Halde, chiefly inhabited by Mandshur soldiers and exiles, under the command of a lieutenant-general. Ningouta was alio

Histoire des Tatars, 388.

According to Pctis de la Croir, in his learned notes on Shereseddiu, Yarkand in only another name for Caibgari but this opinion seems confuted by the letier of the Chinese general. See Independent Tatary. Kotun, whence perhaps cotton derives its name, is also called Chateen, and was a flourishing «ity in the last century. Ben:ink, 193.

Grosier, in his description of China, i. 336, gives an interesting account cf Hami, which is about half a league in circumference, with two beautiful gates. It stands in a fertile plain, watered by a river, sheltered by hills on the north. The gardens and fields are delightful: and fine agates arc found, but the diamondU seem fabulous.

the residence of a Mandshur general, and the seat of a considerable trade, particularly in the celebrated plant called ginseng, which abounds in the neighbourhood. Sagalian Oula* Hotun signifies the city of the black river, and is the chief Mandshur settlement on that noble streamf.

The chief city of Corea is Kinkatao, of which we may be said only to know the name.

Trane. The principal trade of the Mandshur country consists in ginseng, and pearls, found in many rivers which falls into the Amur. Excellent horses may also be classed among the exports. Cashgar was formerly celebrated for musk and gold. The other towns are rather stations for merchants, than seats of commerce. But the emporia of the Russian trade with China must not be forgotten, being on the Russian side Zuruchattu on the river Argoon, and Kiachta; opposing to which, on the Chinese frontier, are correspondent stations erected of wood.

In the Mandshur language, Oula signifies a river, as in the Chinese Kiang. Du Halde, iv. 530. Pira implies the same. In the Mongul Murcn is a river; Alin a mountain, also Tababan; Rata is a rock. In the Tatar or Turkish Tag is a mountain, Daria a river.

f Du Halde, iv. 19.

Corea also produces gold, silver, iron, beautiful yellow varnish, and white paper, ginseng; with small horses about three feet high, ermine, beaver, and fossil salt. Du Halde, iv. 558.