*

is covered with eternal verdure, and abounds in forests of large anf lofty trees. The sides of the mountains are improved by the hand o industry, and crowned with orchards, fields, and villages. Tibet proper, on the contrary, exhibits only low, rocky hiils, without any visible vegetation, or extensive arid plains, of an aspect equally stern; while the bleak and cold climate constrains the inhabitants to seek refuge in sheltered vales and hollows, or amidst the warmest aspects of the rocks. Yet Tibet produces great abundance and variety of wild fowl and game; with numerous flocks of sheep and goats, and herds of cattle, and is infested by many beasts of prey: while in Bootan, few wild animals arc found except monkeys, and a few pheasants. Tibet proper must indeed be considered as a mineral country, the mountains presenting a peculiarly naked aspect, which indicates that they contain rich ores, for the fumes of large masses of metal are poisonous to vegetation.

Soil. The nature of the soil here prohibits the progress of agriculture. The vales are commonly laid under water on the approach of winter: in the spring they are ploughed and sown, while frequent showers and a powerful sun, contribute speedily to manure the ciopsf. The autumn being clear and tranquil, the harvest is long left to dry on the ground; and when sufficiently hardened is trod out by cattle. The course of cultivation is wheat, peas, and barley; rice being confined to a more southern soil.

Riveas. The chief river of Tibet is, beyond all comparison, the Sampoo or Berhanpootar, which rising in the western region, from the same lofty mountains that give source to the Ganges, proceeds in an east and south-east direction, for about the space of 1000 English miles, to the confines of Tibet and Asam, where it bends south-west, and flows into the estuary of the Ganges, after a further course of about 400 British miles.

The Hoan-ho and Kian-ku of the Chinese also derive their origin from the eastern boundaries of Tibet. Of the other rivers, little is known; but the great Japanese river of Cambodia, or Maykaung of Laos; that of Nou Kia, supposed to pass near Martaban into the gulf of Pegu; and the Irrawady of this last country, are ail supposed to derive their sources from the mountains of Tibet, which may be styled the Alps of Asia. Nor must it be forgotten that another large river, called the Sardjoo or Gagra, which after a course of about 600 milts, nearly parallel on the east, with that of the Ganges, joins it near Chupra, also derives its spring from the lofty western mountain of Tibet.

LAXES. These Alpine regions contain, as usual, many lakes, the most considerable being represented under the name of Terkiri, about eighty British miles in length, and twenty-five broad. The Chinese lamas, who drew up the map of Tibet, which geographers still copy in the want of superior authorities, have also depicted many other lakes in the northern parts of the country; where there certainly exists one very singular, which yields the lineal or crude borax. Equally uncontinon is the lake to the south of Lussa, which our maps call Jamuro or Paltè, the last appellation probably from Peiti, a village *Turner, p. 216. † Ibid 354.

which the original atlas of Du Halde places on its margin. This strange lake is represented as a wide trench, of about two leagues broad, everywhere surrounding an island of about twelve leagues in diameter; if true, a singular feature of nature. Even the smaller lakes in the south of Tibet proper are in the winter frozen to a great depth.

Mountains. The vast ranges of Tibetan mountains have already been repeatedly mentioned; but there is no accurate geographical delineation of their course and extent. Those in the west and south seem to bend in the form of a crescent, from the sources of the Ganges, to the frontiers of Asam, in a north-west and south-east direction. To the north of Sampoo a parallel and yet higher ridge seems to extend, the northern extremities abounding with large frozen lakes. In Du Halde's atlas, which was drawn up by the able D'Anville, the mountains which give source to the Ganges are called those of Kentaisse, and seem to belong to the northern chain known by many local names; but the chief elevation appears as usual to be central, to the south of the lake Terkiri, being called Koiran, an appellation which might therefore be scientifically extended to the whole chain, if that of Kantel (the western part) be rejected. The southern range also presents many names of distinct mountains, but the Hindoo name of Himmala is preferable*.

From these great ranges many branches extend north and south as in the Alps, and their names may perhaps be traced, but with little accuracy, in the general map of Tibet, and atlas of the provinces, drawn up by D'Anville from the sketches of the missionaries, and already repeatedly quoted.

Forests. Bootan, the southern province of Tibet, abounds with forests containing many European trees, though the oak be wanting; and several peculiar to Asia. Nipal, the adjoining province to the west, probably presents similar features. The high snowy mountains which contain the sources of the Ganges are perhaps barren of vegetation, a character generally applicable to Tibet proper.

Zoology. In Bootan few wild animals are observable, except monkeys; but Tibet abounds with game of various descriptions. The horsss are of a small size, or what we term ponies, but spirited to a degree of obstinacy. The cattle are also diminutive. The (locks of shiep are numerous, commonly small, with black heads and legs; the wool soft, and the mutton excellent. It is a peculiarity of the country that the latter food is generally eaten raw. When dried in the frosty air it is not disagreeable, in this state, to an European palatef.

The goats are numerous, and celebrated for producing a line hair, which is manufactured into shawls, and which lies beneath the exterior coarse coat. Nor must the singular breed of cattle be forgotten, called

The southern, range is the Himalova fImaus?) of Hindoo mythology. The Chumularce near Phari, on the north frontier of Boo:un, is one of th« highest peaks. Turner, 203.

Du HalJc's map of Tibet seems to exclude Bootan, and several provinces

Yak by the Tatars, covered with thick long hair: the tail being peculiarly flowing and glossy, and an article of luxury in the cast, where it is used to drive away the flies, and sometimes dried for ornaments. These cattle do not low, but, when uneasy, make a kind of grunting sound, whence the breed is called the bos grurmiens.

The musk deer delights in intense cold. This valuable animal has two long curved tusks, proceeding downward from the upper jaw, which seems intended to dig roots, his usual food. The figure of the body somewhat resembles the hog, while the hair approaches the quills of the porcupine. The musk, which is only found in the male, is formed in a little tumor at the navel; and is the genuine and authentic article so Styled, being commonly black, and divided by thin cuticles*.

The wild horse is also classed among the quadrupeds of Tibet. The tiger may perhaps appear in the south-east, but the many other beasts of prey, as the ounce, &c. are of small size, as may be expected in so cold a climate.

The lakes abound with water fowl in the summer, many of which may perhaps be new to zoology; and little is discovered concerning the fish and insects of this singular country.

Mineralogy. The mineralogy is better known from the account appended to Mr. Turner's journey, in 1783, from which it appears that Bootan does not probably contain any metal except iron, and a small portion of copper; while Tibet proper, on the contrary, seems to abound with rich minerals. Gold is found in great quantities, sometimes in the form of dust in the beds of rivers, sometimes in large masses, and irregular veins, commonly in a gangart of pelrosilex or of quartz. There is a lead mine, two days journey from Teshoo Lumboo, the ore being galena, probably containing silver. Cinnabar, rich in quicksilver, is also found: and there are strong indications of copper. Rock salt is another product of Tibet. But in general the metals cannot be worked, as there is a complete deficiency of fuel: and conl would be far more precious than gold.

The most peculiar product of Tibet is tincal, or crude borax; concerning which, Mr. Saunders, who accompanied Mr. Turner, gives the following interesting information. "The lake, from which tincal and rock salt are collected, is alxwt fifteen days journey from Teshoo Lumboo, and to the northward of it. It is encompassed on all sides by rocky hills, without any brooks or rivulets near at hand: but its waters are supplied by springs, which being saltish to the taste are not used by the natives. The tincal is deposited or formed in the bed of the lake: and those who go to collect it dig it up in large masses, which they afterwards break into small pieces, for the convenience of carriage, exposing it to the air to dry. Although tincal has been collected from this lake for a great length of time, the quantity is not perceptibly diminished; and as the cavities made by digging it soon wear out, or fill up, it is an opinion with the people that the formation of fresh tincal is going on. They have never yet met it in dry ground or high situations, but it is found in the shallowest depths, and the

* Turner, 200.

borders of the lake; which deepening gradually from the edges towards the centre, contains too much water to admit of their searching for the tincal conveniently; but from the deepest parts they bring rock salt, which is not to be found in shallows, or near the bank. The waters of the lake rise and fall very little, being supplied by a constant and unvarying source, neither augmented by the influx of any current, nor diminished by any stream running from it. The lake, I was assured, is at least twenty miles in circumference; and, standing in a very bleak situation, is frozen for a great part of the year. The people employed in collecting these salts, are obliged to desist from their labour so early as October, on account of the ice. Tincal is used in Tibet for soldering, and to promote the fusion of gold and silver. Rock salt is universally used for all domestic purposes in Tibet, Bootan, and Nipal.*"

Mineral Waters.

There are many mineral waters in various parts of this extensive country; nor is their salutary use unknown to the natives.

The natural curiosities of this NATURAL CURIOSITIES. Alpine region must of course be numerous, but they have been little explored. Towards the north of Tassisudon Mr. Saunders observed a singular rock, forming in front six or seven angular semi-pillars of great circumference, and some hundred feet in height. This natural curiosity was in part detached from the mountain, and projected over a considerable fall of water, which added much to the grand picturesque appearance of the whole. He adds that the rock is laminated, and might be formed into slate; and iron stones being found in the vicinity, it is probable that these pillastres may, like those of basalt, arise from the influence of that metal.

Before closing this account, it must be observed, that there is a district to the north-west of Cashmir, called Little Tibet, and which is supposed to contain the chief source of the Indus. But of this country, which is also represented as a portion of the Chinese empire, little or nothing is known; and even its very situation seems doubtful, for D'Anville in his map of Asia, has placed it to the north-east of Cashmir, thus representing it as the north-west extremity of Tibet proper. But Little Tibet is probably on the north and north-west of Cashmir, being divided from Great Tibet by a high mountainous ridge, and yet a higher chain, that of Bclur, from Great Bucharia. It is said to be a very mountainous and poor country, pervaded by the Indus, The capital is Ascardu; and further and in the north full of forests. to the north is Schakar, as already mentioned in the observations on the boundaries of Great Tibet. Temir-kand, or the fortress of iron, seems to command the pass between Great and Little Tibet: and the two Gangas of the Clunese maps (supposed sources of the Ganges) are probably rivers which join the Indus from the east.

JAPAN.

CHAPTER I.

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY.

NAMES. EXTENT. ORIGINAL POPULATION. PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY. HISTORICAL EPOCHS. ANTIQUITIES.

THE kingdom, or, as it is by some styled, the empire of Japan, has by most geographers been classed among the Asiatic isles, and has in consequence been treated with more brevity than its importance demands. For, excepting China, no existing Asiatic monarchy can aspire to superior rank, or is more calculated to excite rational curiosity, from the singularity of its government, abundant population, progress in the ails of life, and peculiar manners of the people. The Japanese islands may in some measure, be compared with Great Britain and Ireland, forming a grand insular power, near the eastern extremity of Asia, like that of the British isles near the western extremity of Europe. Nor are ample modern materials wanting; for the honest and industrious Kxmpfer has given us a description which sometimes rivals the Britannia of Camden in minuteness and precision; and Thunberg, an able naturalist, has in his travels produced a supplement; so that few deficiencies remain in our knowledge of this interesting country.

Names. Marco Polo, the father of modern Asiatic geography, mentions Japan by the name of Zipangri or Zipangu. The inhabitants themselves call it Nipon, or Nifon; and the Chintse Sippon, and Jepuen.

Extent.

This empire extends from the thirtieth to the fortyfirst degree of north latitude; and according to the most recent maps, from the 131st to the 142d° of east longitude from Greenwich. Besides many smaller isles, it presents two considerable ones in the southwest, that of Kiusiu (also termed Saikokf or the western country); and that of Sikokf. But by far the most important island is that of Nipon, to the north-east of the two former. The geography of Kampfer has been corrected by recent voyages, according lo which the length of