4.—A Sketch of Irish Character and Customs at this period.

We are indebted to the interest taken by foreign courts in the struggle of the Irish Catholics against the persecuting tyranny of Elizabeth for two important narratives, detailing the chief physical and social features of our country. One of them was written by a Spaniard who had taken part in the expedition to aid the Geraldines, in 1579: he had spent six months in visiting various districts of the island, and in 1581, his narrative, which principally regards the social life and customs of the natives, was presented to the Holy See. The other narrative was written about six years later, by an exiled Irish bishop then present at the papal court. He dwells for the most part on the physical resources of the country, and shows what an important bulwark of the Catholic cause Ireland would be, were it preserved from the assaults of the English heretics:

"THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE IRISH, ESPECIALLY IN THE DESMOND TERRITORY.*

1. "Money is rarely used in this country, and purchases are for the most part made by exchange of goods.

2. "If you except the port towns, there are no hotels or lodginghouses to be found in the island. Every traveller sets up in the first house he meets, and, there, is provided with whatsoever he desires, gratuitously.

3. "Table is not usually laid until evening, but in the meantime drink is not denied to travellers.

4. "There are eight sorts of draughts: beer made of barley and water, milk, whey, wine, broth, mead,† usquebagh, and spring water.

See the original in appendix; it was presented to the Holy See in 1581, and is now published for the first time from the Archiv. Secret. Vatican. There is a second, but very inaccurate MS. copy of it in the Vatican library. †This drink was generally made of honey and milk: Ireland was remarkable, as we shall just now see, for its abundance of honey. Peter Lombard (Comment. c. 8) writes: Quorumdam opinio fuit insulam hanc expertem esse mellis atque ceræ. . Sed hic reclamat prorsus experientia qua constat in tanta abundantia apes hic mellificas esse ut non solum in alveariis sed et in aliis obviis vasis, in cavatis arborum truncis, et in cavernis terræ favos reponant distentissimos."

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5. "The men wrap themselves up in mantles: the women wear large linen wide-spreading bonnets. The knives which are used at table are so long, that they exceed even their daggers in size.

6. "The more honourable person sits in the centre; the next in dignity sits at his right, and so on in order until the range of seats is filled. All sit facing towards the entrance-door: that thus, they say, they may be always ready to repel the attacks of their enemies.

7. "They are so firmly attached to the Catholic faith, that they seem never to have given ear to the heretics. They arise at midnight for prayer and meditation, to which some devote an entire hour, others half an hour: the fires are always lit at the same time.

8. 66 Their language has a great affinity with the Chaldaic and Hebrew: many of the letters are aspirated, whence it happens that the words seem different when written, and when pronounced.

9. "At the Lord's Prayer in the Mass, they arise, and remain standing during its recital.

10. "The men salute each other with a kiss: the women also salute each other in the same manner.

11. "On Wednesdays they abstain from flesh-meats; on Fridays, from white-meats and milk.

12. "Although they are devoid of all polite training, they nevertheless treat each other with such kindness and urbanity, that during six months, I did not see even the soldiers come once to blows: this spirit of concord seems to extend to the horses and dogs, wherefore, I am disposed to refer it all to the mildness of the climate and temperature.

13. "The climate is so mild, that they enjoy almost a perpetual spring; and herbage is never wanting for the flocks of sheep and the herds of cattle.

14. "No poisonous animals are found in Ireland: there are neither snakes, nor vipers, nor toads.*

15. "They eat a great deal when food can be found; but they also fast with alacrity for two or even three days.

* In a life of Marianus Scotus, written by an Irish monk of Ratisbon in the twelfth century, Ireland is thus described: "Dulce solum natalis patriæ, solum omni genere serpentum ac universis vermibus nocivis sequestratum, montes et colles et valles et saltus venatibus aptos, amœmissima fluminum fluenta, et virides terras, in puris fontibus amnes, etc.-Ap. Bollandist. Feb. 9th, page 361-6. Bede also writes (lib. 1, Hist. Ang. cap. i.): "Nullum in Hibernia reptile videri solet, nullus vivere serpens valet nam sæpe illo de Britannia allati serpentes mox ut proximante terris navigio, odore illius aéris attracti fuerint, intereunt. Quin potius omnia pæne quæ de eadem insula sunt, contra venenum valent. Denique vidimus quibusdam a serpente percussis, rasa folia codicum qui de Hibernia fuerunt, ipsam rasuram aquæ immissam ac potui datam, talibus protinus vim veneni_grassantis, totum inflati corporis absumpsisse ac sedasse tumorem." Peter Lombard (loc. cit. cap. 9), speaking of the Irish timber, adds: "Ad domus quoque ædificandas cum in Angliam tum in alias regiones solebant exportari quia præter alia commoda ubicumque venenatæ sunt aranea manent semper munda (ligna), et immunia ab earum telis, ex illa nimirum prærogativa qua quæcumque ex Hibernia adferuntur, contra venenata cuncta valent."

16. 66 They show an inviolable fidelity to their chiefs, at whose discretion they make peace or war.

17. "In battle each one follows his own natural ardour, and rushes on the ranks of the enemy without paying attention to the course pursued by his companions.

18. "In swiftness, they equal and sometimes surpass the horses.

19. "They freely seat themselves on hay, or straw, or grass; but they avoid the hard ground and benches.

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20. They mount their horses, seizing them by the left ear, and using nothing to support their feet.

21.

66 They use no leggings, and never even make them.

22. 66 The nobility are clothed in garments made of skin and adorned with various colours.

23. "They cultivate sacred poetry* with great assiduity; they do not undertake to compose verses on sacred subjects, except after fasting and prayer. When important negociations have to be made, the bards are always chosen as the negociators.

24. "At meals, before the thanksgiving is made, the bishop or priests who may be present make an exhortation, and all listen to it with great attention."

The second narrative, though dwelling chiefly on the material features of our island, is not less interesting. It is as follows: "DISCOURSE ON THE KINGDOM OF IRELAND, AND ON THE NUMBER OF TROOPS THAT WILL BE NECESSARY FOR ITS RE-CONQUEST, ADDRESSED TO POPE GREGORY XIII.

"The kingdom of Ireland is almost equal in size to England, when considered as separated from Scotland, which is smaller than either of the other two islands.

"It abounds in corn and cattle, int wool and

in flesh

* Peter Lombard, in his "Commentarius de Regno Hib." cap. 12, writes: "Musica delectantur et poesi. Ad militiam maxime sunt affecti, et ad eam cum primis quibusque apti nationibus utpote animosi, fortes, expediti, patientes laboris, et inediæ, appetentes gloriæ et capacissimi cum totius disciplinæ militaris tum usus atque exercitii armorum omnis generis. Scientias seu liberales disciplinas multum amant et viros eruditos plurimum honorant. Sunt etiam passim acutis præditi ingeniis et ubi commoditatem ad id nacti addicunt se libenter studiis, diligenter eis insistunt, proniores vero ad ea feruntur studiorum sive scientiæ genera in quibus ingenii acumen, quam alia mentis vis exercet se et exerit.

†This discourse was written in Italian, and is now published for the first time from Biblioth. Vatic. Codex Urbinus, 854, fog. 408, et seqq; see the orig. in appendix. In the translations, some irrelevant passages are omitted.

In a letter of John Hooker to Sir Peter Carew, on 26th May, 1568, we find the following interesting description of the fertility of the barony of Idrone, of which, forsooth, that adventurer had resolved to deprive the rightful

Owners:

in milk and honey,

and in fish, both of the sea and of fresh water,*of which there is such an abundance to be found, even in the woods and where the bee-hives are not cared, that the inhabitants make use of

"The soyle and countrie of that baronny is very large and great, and yn all Europa not a more plesaunt, sweter, or frutefuller Lande; the same beinge referted with all thinges necessarye for man yn any respecte, servinge for pleasure or neede, for huntinge the stagge, the hare, the fox, the wolff, for your pleasure at will; for hawkinge with all kyndes of hawkes, at partridge, rayle, fesaunt, crene, byttern, and a nomber of other foules, as miche as can be wished and desyred: for fyshinge there is as miche as any freshewater can geve; the seas are somewhat dystaunte from this countrie of Hydron, but yet, on the one side, a goodly river called the Barro fleateth through the whole countrie, and this so serveth the countrie, that upon it they do conveighe all their comodyties and marchaundyses from the seas or from Waterford even to the house of Laghlyn." ("The Life and Times of Sir Peter Carew, Bart.," by John Maclean, Esq., London, 1857, pag. 198, from the MSS. of Lambeth Palace.)

* Venerable Bede styles Ireland, "Dives lactis et mellis insula nec vinearum expers; piscium volucrumque sed et cervorum venatu insignis." (Hist. Ang. lib. i. cap. 1.) Peter Lombard, in his "Commentarius," devotes the entire sixth chapter to the salubrity of the island. He writes as follows:-"Salubritatem hujus regionis, multa sunt quæ probant et insigniter commendant, sed potissimum hæ quinque dotes: 1. temperies cœli perpetua: 2. aquarum puritas et præstantia: 3. ciborum omnis generis et præsertim carnium atque piscium suavitas: 4. morborum paucitas, raritas, et levitas: 5. Prærogativa singularis contra venena et venenata cuncta animantia." His remark on the purity of the waters is especially interesting :- "Sunt illæ hic purissimæ et clarissimæ idque non in fontium tantum primis scatebris atque rivis sed in ipsis quoque lacubus imo in fluminibus donec eæ misceantur cum refluxu maris. Sunt etiam præter id quod gustu delectabiles, adeo virtute præstantes ut plurimæ sint quæ ad præstandas sanitates plurimum valeant. Quæ virtus ut in nonnullis concedenda est inesse a naturali earum excellentia, ita et quibusdam non est dubitandum eam impertitam atque impetratam per merita sanctorum hujus regionis a quibus proinde ea suas olim acceptas nomenclaturas etiamnum hodie immutatas retinent." As to the food, he adds :-"Quod ad ciborum spectat suavitatem testantur exteri et nominatim Angli, qui hîc aliquando commorati, carnes atque etiam pisces in Hibernia multo esse delicatiores et suaviores quam sint in ipsa Anglia; unde solent curiosius indagare, cum primum huc adveniunt an id a natura inditum an vero arte aliqua sit inductum." In the seventh chapter he speaks of the Irish fisheries; and with very few changes, his words would be applicable to the present day :-"In mari, quacumque Hiberniam alluit, in portibus ejus et in sinubus, in fluviis et in lacubus tanta est varietas et abundantia piscium et quidem omni anni tempore, quantam vel nulla alia habet Europæ regio vel certe non cum ea commoditate qua hinc velut ex præcipuo quodam Europæ vivario aliis ejus regionibus ubertas ista communicari possit, si talis esset rerum administratio qualis deberet merito, cum ad ipsam ditandam insulam, tum ad commodandum externis nationibus. Quin etiam modo utcumque administrentur res, præterquamquod indigenis ubi aliqualis saltem industria adhibetur, semper sit provisum abunde de piscibus, etiam magna effertur copia ad externas quasdam regiones, partim per Hibernos sed præcipue per mercatores Angliæ. Quæ quidem, exclusis mercatoribus et piscatoribus aliarum nationum, suis dumtaxat subditis reservat jus et potestatem hîc piscandi. Unde videre est per omne anni tempus passim in Hiberniæ portibus et æstuariis innumeros piscatores Anglos, quod hic quam in Anglia experiantur piscationem, uti copiosiorem sine comparatione ita et multo utiliorem etiam expensis omnibus quas faciunt in rationem adductis."

wax and honey according as they want it, and pay no further attention to it.

"There are mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead. Iron is found in all parts of the island.* There is also an abundance of lakes and rivers. "It has a peculiar breed of horses, which are not too high of stature, but are swift, and not unlike the Spanish horses.† It yields also the same articles of produce which are yielded by England.

"There is a superabundance of hawks and falcons, which are of a superior quality, and are highly esteemed in France.

"In winter the cold is not so severe as it is in England. No sort of serpents or obnoxious animals-not even a spider is to be found there, so much so, that its clay is carried into England and Scotland as a remedy against serpents.

"The Reasons why the Irish are the Natural Enemies of England: "The first and chief reason is the difference of religion.

"The second is, that the English kings have, contrary to every right and justice, usurped the title of kings of Ireland.

"The third is, that the English crown has tyrannized over our island, seeking only its own aggrandizement, without paying any attention to the interests of the natives; and entrusting the government to English agents, who use the most tyrannical means to enrich themselves, transporting its produce into England, taxing the people contrary to its laws and ancient privileges, maintaining wars and domestic strife amongst the inhabitants, and, in a word, satiating their blood with the very blood and bowels of the natives.

* Peter Lombard, loc. cit. cap. 9, gives the following important testimony regarding the mines of Ireland:-"Sunt hîc et quidem copiose mineralia plurima et argentum vivum, alumen, vitreolum, sulphur: immo et metalla in suo quoque genere admodum præstantia. Et ferrum quidem facili

opera eruitur et coquitur ab iis etiam qui metallorum parum sunt periti, et nihilominus probatur tam excellens ut non aliud in Europa magis sit durabile. Alia metalla nonnisi tecte adhuc et parte sunt attacta. Attamen sic tentata ut possit id sufficere ad judicium de eorum præstantia et abundantia. Verum ne magis innotescant vel explorentur cavet diligenter et advigilat Concilium Anglia: in quo cum aliquando fuisset propositum de fodinis in Hibernia indagandis, opposuit se acerrime quidam e primis Proceribus qui aliquando in Hibernia rebus præfuit, tanquam non expediret ullo modo statui immo saluti Angliæ ut in lucem veniret et notitiam potentioris cujuspiam nationis quanti essent a natura in fodinis Hiberniæ reconditi thesauri. De his quæcumque

ego hîc adduco, accepi pro certissimis partim a præfectis fodinarum in Anglia qui et Hiberniam aliquando studiose perlustrarunt, partim ab aliis qui pernoverunt intime quæcumque in Concilio Angliæ de iisdem sunt proposita."

+ The Irish horses were celebrated in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Munster, in his " Cosmographia" (lib. ii.), says: "Gignit Hibernia multos equos qui graviter incedunt, studentque velut datâ opera mollem facere gressum, ne insidenti molestiam ullam inferant." Jovius also states that the Irish horses were often bestowed as presents by the nobility of France and Spain; and adds the curious fact: ex hoc genere duodecim candoris eximii, purpura et argenteis habenis exornatos in pompa summorum pontificum sessore vacuos duci videmus."-(In lib. de Regionib. in Descript. Hiberniæ.)

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