The subjoined table shows the classes of offences and the number of offenders in each class at different periods

TRANSPOSITION, the name given in Algebra to the process of removing a term from one side of an equation to another, changing its sign. Thus, if ab c, by transposition ac= =b. On this we have only to remark, that in this instance the rule is not much of an abbreviation. If we say, 'transpose c,' instead of take c from both sides,' so little is gained, that it may be doubted whether it would not be better to follow the continental writers in the use of the latter form of expression: a process which would have the advantage of being a perpetual appeal to reason instead of rule.

TRANSPOSITION, in Music, is a change from the original key to one higher or lower. This is generally performed at a moment's notice by the accompanyist. He must assign to all the notes, as regards their pitch, or their situations on his instrument, names wholly different from those in the copy placed before him. To accomplish this he has to suppose a change of clef, or clefs, and thus give new designations to all the lines and spaces. For instance-a pianoforte player is required to transpose an air a whole tone lower, from A to G. For this purpose he must assume a change in both clefs, the treble into the tenor, and each note to be played an octave higher than it is written; the base into the alto, and each note to be played an octave lower than it is written.

TRANSUBSTANTIATION. [SACRAMENTS.] TRANSVERSAL, a name given to a line which is drawn across several others, so as to cut them all, as when a straight line intersects the three sides of a triangle.

TRANSVERSE, in Conic Sections, a name often given to one of the axes of a figure, usually that of greatest magnitude, or which goes most directly across the figure. Thus the longer axis of an ellipse or hyperbola is called the transverse axis. Properly speaking, it ought to be only a term of relative distinction: either axis is transverse to the other.

with forests, which yield abundance of magnificent timber. There are no plains of importance, but the valleys are numerous and very picturesque. The lowest part of the country is more than 500 feet above the level of the sea.

All the important rivers are tributaries of the Danube, either flowing directly into that river, or joining the Theiss. The Maros rises on the eastern frontier at the foot of Mount Tatarrhago. It runs, with many windings and a general westerly course, past Karlsburg and Arad, and enters the Theiss opposite Szegedin. The whole length is about 400 miles, 190 of which are in Transylvania; it is navigable for boats at Karlsburg. The river contains abundance of fish. The Szamos is formed by the junction of the Great and Little Szamos. The former rises in the N.E. of Transylvania, and runs S.W. as far as Deez, where it is joined by the latter, which flows N.E. past Clausenburg from the western frontier. From Deez the united stream first runs N.W., then S.W., and at last N., till it reaches the northern boundary a little above Szada: it joins the Theiss at the village of Apata. The whole length of the Szamos is upwards of 200 miles, and three-fourths of its course are in Transylvania. The Alt, or Aluta, rises a little E. of the source of the Maros to the S. of Mount Tatarrhago; it runs at first from N. to S. in an Alpine valley bordered by high and steep rocks, till it reaches the limits of the district of Cronstadt. There it turns suddenly N.N.W., but soon again changes its direction to S.W. and W., as far as the southern environs of Hermannstadt, whence it flows S. as far as its junction with the Danube opposite Nikopoli. The length of the Alt is about 250 miles, 134 of which are in Transylvania. The Austrian government have succeeded in making it navigable in Transylvania; the Wallachian part of it is still in a state of primitive wildness. There are some important lakes in Transylvania; that of Hados is 15 miles long; St. Anna is 10 miles long and as many broad; Piritsch, in the Carpathians, is renowned for the gas which is exhaled from its surface, and which suffocates birds that fly over it; and the Holt-Maros is a lake formed by the Maros near Karlsburg.

TRANSYLVANIA, a crown-land of the Austrian empire, lies between 45° 12′ and 47° 42′ N. lat., 22° 15 and 26° 20' E. long.; its greatest length from N.W. to S.E. is 194 miles, and its greatest breadth from The summer days are very hot, especially in the W. to E. is 184 miles. It is bounded N. and W. by valleys and in the western and southern parts of the Hungary, E. by the Bukowina and Moldavia, and S. country, but the nights are cold, and in the winter the by Wallachia. The Germans call it Siebenbürgen, the cold is almost insupportable. In the east the temperaHungarians, Erdely Orzag (woody country'). The ture is wet and cold, and not favourable for grain. Latin name Transylvania was given to it by the Hun- Cold winds prevail in the spring and autumn, and blow garians from the circumstance that extensive woody with great regularity. Dreadful storms followed by mountains separate it from Hungary. The eastern and sudden severe cold are frequent. On the whole, howsouthern boundaries are formed by the Carpathian ever, the climate is considered healthy, and is mere mountains, the passes of which are of great military equable than that of Hungary, the mountain chain importance, being the only means of communication along the southern frontier keeping off the hot winds. between Transylvania on one side, and Moldavia and Wallachia on the other. Some of them are exceeding narrow, and are cut through the solid rock for more than 30 miles. Many of them have been the scene of most desperate conflicts with the Turks.

In the valleys of the south and west the soil is of great fertility: the eastern and northern parts and a tract along the western frontier are covered with forests, where the soil is stony in many districts; but even the stony surface is covered with a layer of mould which renders it The surface of the country is very much diversified, very suitable for the cultivation of the vine, and there but is generally mountainous: the Carpathian chain can be no doubt that at some future time Transylvanis not only covering its S. and E. frontier, but sending will rank very high as a wine-producing country. All out numerous ramifications, the most important of the gentlemen, and even the superior tradesmen, already which proceed from E. to W. The culminating points make their own; and though the process of manuof the mountains are situated near the south frontier, facture is very rude, several fine kinds are produced. where Negoi, not far from Hermannstadt, has a height In fact, a recent traveller considers some of them to be exceeding 8000 feet; and Butschetsch, near Cronstadt, the very best wines in the world. The quantity made is scarcely 100 feet lower. Many of the summits pre- at present is about 16,000,000 gallons per annum. sent scenery remarkable for its grandeur. Extensive The most important mineral is rock-salt, a bed of which tracts of the hilly and mountainous parts are covered extends from Wallachia through Transylvania to Galicia,

1.

covering a space of 570 miles in length, and from 60 | registering property for the purpose of easier transmisto 80 miles in breadth. About 1,500,000 cwts. of salt sion and sale introduced, and the country provided with are annually obtained from the mines; besides which roads and railways, it could not fail to attract capitalists there are 120 salt springs. The other mineral pro- from England and elsewhere, and ultimately to become ducts are gold, silver, iron, lead, copper, antimony, one of the most prosperous in Europe. arsenic, mercury, alum, sulphur, nitre, and marble. Towns.-HERMANNSTADT (the capital, and place of More than twenty gold mines are worked, and nearly meeting for the Transylvanian Parliament), CLAUSENevery stream in the country is auriferous. Coal and BURG, and CRONSTADT (two of the principal towns), peat abound, but they have not been used for fuel in will be found described in their respective places. Bistritz consequence of the plentiful supply of wood. Various (Besztercz') is on the river Bistritz, 50 miles N.E. of kinds of precious stones are found in the mountains Clausenburg, and has 5580 inhabitants, who manufacand rivers. The mineral waters are celebrated. Besides ture cloth, leather, and soap, and trade in cattle. It is enormous quantities of timber, Transylvania produces fortified, and has several churches, a gymnasium, gramwheat, barley, corn, oats, millet, and maize; apples, mar-schools, &c. The surrounding district is intersected pears, and other fruits in abundance; and good tobacco, by a branch of the Carpathian mountains, and the climate especially in the valley of the Alt. Notwithstanding the backward state of its agriculture, more corn is generally produced than is required for home consumption. The breeding of cattle chiefly occupies the Wallachians residing in Transylvania; sheep are numerous, and large quantities of hogs are fed in the forests. Fish, wild and tame fowl, and game of all sorts abound; wolves are frequent in the Carpathians, and even bears and lynxes are occasionally met with. The horses are small, but swift, and very suitable for light cavalry. Buffaloes are used for field labour. Manufactures scarcely exist, except in the valley of the Alt, where the Germans produce some fine dyed cloths and cotton, felt hats, leather, and linen. The commerce with Wallachia, Moldavia, and Turkey, is of some importance; but the country suffers very much from its isolation, and from the want of good roads, and its trade is by no means proportionate to the extent and variety of its productions.

is severe. Karlsburg (Hungarian, Karoly-Fejervar '), on the Maros, 48 miles S. of Clausenburg, is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Transylvania. The city is strongly fortified, and in its environs are rich gold mines. The population is 5240, comprising many Jews, who enjoy peculiar rights here. The principal public buildings are-the Roman Catholic cathedral; the Bathany church; the palace of the bishops of Transylvania; a Roman Catholic gymnasium, with the provincial archives; a mint, observatory, and arsenal; barracks, hospitals, and several public libraries. Nagy-Enyed, 17 miles further up the Maros, has 6000 inhabitants, a Protestant college, a museum, public library, cavalry barracks, &c. Neumarkt (Maros-Vazarhely ') 77 miles N.W. of Cronstadt, is also on the Maros, and contains a strong castle, a Roman Catholic gymnasium, a Protestant college, with a cabinet of natural history; a mineralogical museum, and a public library. Its population is about 3000. Schässburg ('Segesvar'), on the The whole area of Transylvania is 21,000 square miles, Great Kükel, in a beautiful valley, 24 miles E.S.E. of and the population at the last census was 1,926,797, Neumarkt, is fortified, and divided into an upper and of whom 1,104,322 were Wallachs and Eastern Rou- lower town. It has a gymnasium, and 7000 inhabitmains, 517,577 Magyars and Szeklers, 200,364 Ger- ants, mostly Saxons, who manufacture cotton and cloth, mans, and the remainder Sclaves, Gipsies, Armenians, and carry on an active trade in wine in the neighbourhood. Jews, Italians, &c. No country in the world has, within This town has a very ancient appearance. Thorenburg so small a compass, so great a variety among its inhab- is a market town 17 miles S.E. of Clausenburg, with a itants, comprising fourteen distinct races. Arranged population of 8000. Near it are rich mines of rockaccording to the religion they profess, there are about salt; and the ruins of the Roman fortress Salina, a 625,000 non-united Greeks; 550,000 Greek Catholics station of the seventh legion, who have left various and Armenians; 460,000 Protestants, chiefly Calvinists, Lutherans, and Unitarians; 230,000 Roman Catholics; and 14,000 Jews; leaving about 50,000 for other denominations. The different sects are supported by the state, and enjoy equal privileges.

crown.

inscriptions there. Varhely (Gradistje '), in the valley of the Hatzeg, is on the site of the ancient capital of Dacia, which was afterwards occupied by the Romans, and named by them Ulpia Trajana. The environs are full of Roman antiquities.

A narrow tract of Transylvania along the frontier of Moldavia and Wallachia belongs to the Austrian Military Frontier, and has a separate administration with regard to military affairs. [MILITARY FRONTIER.]

The Diet of Transylvania consists of 165 members125 elected by the people, and forty nominated by the In the elections every man has a vote who has attained the age of twenty-four, and pays direct taxes to the amount of eight florins, or about 15s.; and all An excellent and very interesting work on the councitizens of irreproachable character, and above thirty try, to which we refer the reader for further information, years of age, are capable of being elected. The sum is Transylvania: its Products and its People, by Charles raised in direct taxation now amounts to over 4,000,000 Boner, London, 1865. florins, or about 400,000l. per annum.

TRAPA, a genus of plants of the natural family of Onagraria, but sometimes appended to the Halorageæ, sometimes formed into a distinct order Hydrocaryes, Water-nuts. The fruit is furnished with spines, and the species are commonly called Water-caltrops, from the plants floating on the surface of lakes, and on that of slow-running streams. They are found in the temperate parts of Europe and of Siberia, in Cashmere, India, Cochin-China, and China.

The Austrian government appears to be sincerely anxious to rule the country fairly, and develop its resources more fully, but the greatest possible difficulty exists, in consequence of the different nationalities of the inhabitants, and the feeling of jealousy they often entertain towards each other. The Wallachs, who have for centuries been kept almost in the position of serfs, are gradually obtaining more influence and importance; and the Saxon or German element, which was so long These small plants are of much more importance than the dominant one, is declining. Were the laws more many which are more conspicuous or better known, from strictly and firmly administered, a better system of the fact that their large seeds consist of pure edible

fecula. Trapa natans, the European species, is remark-verted to a Christian life by the death, under appalling able for its fruit with four spines, being of a blackish circumstances, of a favourite mistress. He set himself colour and large size, and its seed, which nearly fills it, to work, with all the energy of his character, to reform being farinaceous, and good to eat, whether raw, roasted, La Trappe, and instituted a disciplinary system therein or in soups. It is somewhat like a chestnut in taste. of the severest character. Over every obstacle thrown It was known to the Romans by the name of Tribulus. in his way by the monks themselves or by others his The Indian and Chinese species have each only two strong will triumphed, and he proved his sincerity by spines. The former is the Trapa bispinosa. In India entering anew as a novice in 1663. In the following year the nuts are sold in all the bazaars, as their farinaceous he solemnly took the usual vows, and was re-installed kernels are much esteemed by the Hindus. A species as abbot. Thenceforward he ruled with a despotic called in Hindustan Singara forms a considerable por- crozier. He forbade his monks the use of meat, wine, tion of the food of the inhabitants of Cashmere, where eggs, fish; enjoined upon them perpetual silence except it bears the same name. The Chinese Trapa bicornis in cases of necessity; revived the old monastic custom is carefully cultivated in lakes, ponds, and other recep- of manual labour, and completely cut them off from al tacles of water. intercourse with the outer world. The day began at

TRAPANI, a province comprising the western ex-two A.M. with matins in the church, lasting till half-past tremity of the island of Sicily, the area of which is 1058 square miles, and the population in 1862 was 214,981. Its general features and principal towns, except the capital TRAPANI, are described under SICILY.

three; then followed a brief period of private devotion: after which at five, the office of prime, and a lecture. At seven each monk addressed himself to his allotted secular task, returning to the choir at nine for the successive TRA'PANI, a town on the N.W. coast of Sicily, 46 offices of terce, sext, and nine; dining at their close upon miles W. of Palermo, is built on the site of the ancient a simple dish of vegetables dressed in oil or butter, with Drépanum, on a point of land projecting into the sea, a little fruit. Manual labour again occupied a couple of and facing the island of Levanzo, which is 10 miles W. hours, and the monks next devoted an hour to private of it. Drépanum was a place of traffic from the oldest prayer or reading, each in his own bare solitary cell. times on record; there are, however, no remains of At four P.M. vespers were performed in the choir. A antiquity now extant. The harbour, which is accessible brief pause of repose, a supper of bread and water, a to vessels of about 300 tons burthen, is formed by an lecture, complins in the choir at six, and half an hour of inlet of the sea between the promontory and the main-private meditation brought the day to a close at eight land, and protected on the west by an isolated rock, o'clock. Then the Trappist betook himself to his hard surmounted by an ancient fort, but it is open to the straw mattress, and sought what sleep he could; sleep libeccio, or south-west wind, which is most dangerous being often denied, we fear, to a body insufficiently on this coast. Trapani is one of the principal ports of nourished and a mind constantly overwrought. Sicily; it carries on a considerable trade in salt, made by evaporation from sea-water, tunny fish, coral fished up along the coast of Barbary and worked in the town, anchovies, sulphur, sumach, wine, gems, and alabaster. The seamen of the port are among the best in the island. The town contains a collegiate church, numerous other churches (some of which contain fine paintings), many convents, several palaces built in a quaint medieval style, a theatre, a handsome town-hall, a royal college, an orphan asylum, hospitals, and a population of 30,592. It is inclosed by walls, and is defended by a fortress. The streets are wide and well paved with flag-stones. Drépanum was the scene of a celebrated naval battle between the Carthaginians and the Romans (B.C. 237), when the latter were signally and completely defeated. TRAPESUS. [TREBIZOND.]

During the life of De Rancé the Trappists flourished, and he himself was worshipped by the superstitious, while the sagacious man of the world could not withhold from him his respect. At the Revolution the brotherhood was dispersed, but many of its members found an asylum and a resting-place at Valsanite, in the Swiss canton of Freiburg. Thence they were driven by the storms of war to Augsburg, to Munich, and finally to Lithuania, while small communities were planted in England, Italy, Spain, and other countries. In 1816 they re-purchased their old monastery, where they now number about 200 members, and they have formed several small colonies in France, Germany, Ireland, and North America. Their influence now, however, is inconsiderable. They may occasionally attract some great offenders by the promise of self-punishment which their system holds forth as a compensation for past errors; but the world at large has not failed to perceive that both their theory and their practice are anomalies in an age of progress, and anta

TRAPEZIUM (from the Greek ano, a little table') is the general term for a four-sided plane figure, and is synonymous with quadrilateral. Four-sided figures, however, which have parallel sides possess dis-gonistic to the true interests of society. tinctive appellations, and the term trapezium is generally restricted to quadrilaterals whose sides are not parallel. TRAPEZOID, a plane quadrilateral which has two of its sides parallel.

TRAS-OS-MONTES, a province of Portugal, bounded N. and E. by Spain, S. by the province of Beira, and W. by that of Minho, lies between 41° 4′ and 41° 57′ N. lat., 6° 10' and 8° W. long.; it is 80 miles long from TRAPPISTS, THE, a religious order, remarkable for E. to W., and 55 from N. to S.; the area is 4000 the austerity of its practices, was founded where it still square miles; and the population in 1863 was 385,896. lingers out a decaying existence, at La Trappe in Nor- The surface is hilly and dry, with the exception of the mandy, about the middle of the twelfth century. The river valleys, which are highly cultivated, and produce abbey belonged to the Cistercian monks, but having fallen abundance of wheat, maize, rye, beans, and all kinds of into much laxity of discipline was remodelled on a rigid fruits. In places sheltered from the north wind the system by a certain count de Perche. In the course olive and mulberry are extensively planted, and much of years, however, this rigidity almost disappeared, and there was assuredly little of it remaining when the abbey, about 1662, was conferred upon the celebrated Armand Jean le Bouthelier de Rancé; a man of courage, wit, ability, and unbridled profligacy, who was suddenly con

oil and silk produced. On the banks of the rivers, and especially along the right bank of the Douro, which forms the boundary on the E. and S., the vine-from which port wine of superior quality is made-is the great object of cultivation. Cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs are

differences of latitude and departure may be readily deduced in dead reckoning, when a ship cannot lay her course, but sails in various directions, or upon a traverse, as it is called. That which is more properly called a Traverse Table is one from which the various northings, southings, &c., as above, are gathered.

On a

numerous-the last being fattened on chestnuts. The Inountains contain valuable minerals, but very few mines are worked; and some silk and linen are the only manufactures. Wine is the chief export. The province is drained by the Douro, and its feeders the Sabor, Tua, Corgo, and Tameja, and is divided into two districts, Villareal and Bragança, named from its two chief towns. TRAVERSES, in Fortification, are usually masses of Villareal is situated on the Corgo, 60 miles S.W. from earth which are raised at intervals across the terreplein Bragança, and has about 4500 inhabitants, who carry on of a rampart or the covered-way of a fortress. a brisk trade in the products of the district. Bragança, rampart they serve to protect the guns and men against the capital of the province, and the original seat of the the effects of a ricocheting or enfilading fire, which might royal house of Portugal, stands in a fertile plain on the otherwise dismount the former, and compel the latter Fervenza, a feeder of the Sabor, and has 5000 inhabit-to abandon the parapet: and in the covered-way, besides ants, who manufacture taffeta, velvet, and other silk serving for similar purposes, they constitute retrenchfabrics. The city, which is partially fortified and defended by a citadel, is the residence of the bishop of Bragança and Miranda, and has two churches and a college. Regoa, a small village on the right bank of the Douro, in the south-west of the province, deserves notice for its large port-wine fairs and stores. The other towns are Torre de Moncorvo and Miranda.

ments behind which the defenders may keep up an annoying fire of musketry upon the enemy, should the latter attempt to force his way along the branches of that work. On this account they are provided with banquettes, or steps, on which the defenders may stand to fire over them. Palisades are planted along the banquettes, in order to prevent the assailants from suddenly passing over the traverses; and at the passage between each traverse and the interior side of the glacis is a strong gate or barrier, which is closed in the event of the defenders being obliged to retire from one traverse to the next, or to abandon the covered-way entirely.

TRAVERTIN, the Italian term for concretionary limestone produced from springs holding carbonate of lime in solution. A large proportion of the most splendid edifices of ancient and modern Rome are built of travertin derived from the quarries of Ponte Leucano. TREACLE. MOLASSES.]

TRAVANCORE, a state at the S. extremity of India, tributary to the British, having W. and S. the Indian Ocean, and landward the Madras districts, Malabar, Coimbatoor, Madura, and Tinnevelly. Area, 4722 square miles. Population, 1,011,824. Surface mountainous in the E.; elsewhere varied with hill and dale, but only about two-thirds are capable of cultivation. The products comprise rice, almonds, cardamoms, pepper and other spices, betel and cocoa-nuts, tobacco, ivory, and bees-wax. Elephants, large tigers, and buffaloes inhabit the more remote parts. Property of all kinds, as in Canara, descends in the female line. The inhabitants are mostly Hindus, but there are esti-invented by Sir William Cubit, of Ipswich, which was mated to be 100,000 Syrian Christians, and in some communes Christian churches are much more numerous than pagodas and mosques. Principal towns, Trivandrum (the capital), Anjenga, and Quillon. Travancore, the old capital of the state, 50 miles N.N.W. of Cape Comorin, is now in decay.

TRAVEMÜNDE. [LUBECK.]

TRAVERS, JOHN, was educated first in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and afterwards under the celebrated Dr. Greene. In 1737 he was appointed organist to the Chapels Royal. He died in 1758. Travers was the author of the highly popular glees, Haste, my Nanette;' I, my dear, was born to-day;' 'When Bibo thought fit; Soft Cupid,' and of some cathedral music.

TRAVERSE, in Law, is a contradiction of some matter of fact alleged in pleading by the opposite party. It ought to be by express words, and not argumentatively. Generally all matter of fact that is material ought to be either confessed and avoided, or traversed; and if a party justifies an act as to one particular time and place, or confesses and avoids in one respect, he ought to traverse it as to all other. Otherwise what is materially alleged will be taken to be admitted.

In criminal pleading, traverse of an indictment is the taking issue and denying some material point in it. Not guilty is a general traverse, which throws on the prosecutor the necessity of proving all the material facts.

The term Traverse is unknown in Scotch law. In criminal prosecutions the defence is not guilty;' in civil cases, a denial of the relevancy, or of the facts alleged by the pursuer.

TRAVERSE TABLE. In Navigation two tables bear this name; the one is a list of courses, distances, northings, southings, eastings, and westings, in which they are arranged for the convenience of addition, so that

TREAD MILL, an instrument of prison discipline,

formerly much used in the prisons of Great Britain, but which, owing to its excessive severity, and the impossibility of modifying it to suit the physical strength of individuals, has been recently abandoned, and an appliance called the Crank substituted. The tread mill consisted of a long cylinder, about 5 feet in diameter, whose circumference was planted with twenty-four equidistant steps. It revolved on its axis through the force supplied by the tread of prisoners, who were each shut up in a separate boarded compartment, and provided with a hand-rail to assist his movements. It revolved about twice in a minute, equivalent to a vertical ascent of 32 feet. The crank is a small wheel with flanges, like the paddle-wheel of a steam-vessel, which the prisoner, by turning an external handle, causes to turn round within a case filled or partly filled with gravel. A register outside the prisoner's cell records the number of revolutions made, and the task is rendered more or less arduous by the quantity of gravel in which the wheel revolves.

TREASON is derived from the French trahison; and in conformity with this derivation, the offences designated by it in English law always contained the notion of treachery, or a breach of that allegiance supposed to be due from an inferior to a superior. Thus petit treason was the murder of a husband by his wife, or a master by his servant, or a bishop by his subordinate in the church; and high treason consists in an attack upon the king as the political head of the state. The former of these two kinds of treason was abolished by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 2, which enacts that every offence which before that Act would have amounted to petit treason, should be deemed to be murder only, and no greater offence. The only treason, therefore, which can now exist is high treason.